The Benefits of Acerola Cherry
Acerola Cherry
We use Acerola Cherry Extract as a powerful, natural source of Vitamin C, rich in complementary bioflavonoids that work in synergy to support immune health and antioxidant protection.
Key Highlights
- One of nature's richest sources of vitamin C
- Provides naturally occurring bioflavonoids for enhanced absorption
- Supports immune function and collagen formation
- Contains additional antioxidant compounds beyond vitamin C
Biochemistry Timeline
The vitamin C from acerola is absorbed in the small intestine and reaches peak blood levels within 1 to 3 hours. Because acerola provides vitamin C alongside natural bioflavonoids and other plant compounds, some research suggests it may be better retained than isolated ascorbic acid. Consistent daily intake supports ongoing immune function and collagen synthesis.
Summary
Acerola cherry is a tropical fruit prized for its exceptionally high vitamin C content, providing it in a natural, whole-food form alongside supportive plant compounds. Rather than isolated ascorbic acid, acerola delivers vitamin C as part of a complex of bioflavonoids and carotenoids, which may support absorption and utilisation in the body.
FAQs
How does acerola compare to synthetic vitamin C?
Acerola provides vitamin C in its natural form, accompanied by bioflavonoids, carotenoids, and other plant compounds. While the vitamin C molecule itself is identical, the accompanying compounds may enhance how your body absorbs and uses it.
Is acerola suitable for people with citrus allergies?
Acerola is not a citrus fruit; it belongs to the Malpighiaceae family. However, if you have fruit allergies, it is wise to consult your healthcare provider before trying any new supplement.
How much vitamin C does acerola contain?
Fresh acerola cherries can contain 1,000 to 4,500 mg of vitamin C per 100 grams, making them one of the most concentrated natural sources available.
Research
Carvalho Sette Abrantes L et al. — Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr (2026). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40742030/
Olędzki R & Harasym J — Int J Mol Sci (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38396766/
de Aquino Souza Miskinis R et al. — Food Chem (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36444022/
Lima MDC et al. — Foods (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37761200/
de Oliveira SD et al. — 3 Biotech (2023). [Analytical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37637001/
Carvalho Gualberto N et al. — Food Res Int (2021). [Analytical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34399515/
Xu M et al. — Food Res Int (2020). [Analytical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32156365/
Chang SK et al. — Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29360387/
Prakash A & Baskaran R — J Food Sci Technol (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30150795/
Cefali LC et al. — J AOAC Int (2018). [Analytical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29895343/
Nowak D et al. — J Food Sci (2018). [Comparative]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30044505/
Hemilä H & Chalker E — Cochrane Review (2013). [SR + meta-analysis (29 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23440782/
EFSA — Health Claims Register (2012). [Regulatory].
Vitamin C bioavailability — established (Established). [Established science].
IOM — Smoker recommendation (Established). [Government reference].
15 studies — Acerola Cherry
Carvalho Sette Abrantes L et al. — Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr (2026). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40742030/
Olędzki R & Harasym J — Int J Mol Sci (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38396766/
de Aquino Souza Miskinis R et al. — Food Chem (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36444022/
Lima MDC et al. — Foods (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37761200/
de Oliveira SD et al. — 3 Biotech (2023). [Analytical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37637001/
Carvalho Gualberto N et al. — Food Res Int (2021). [Analytical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34399515/
Xu M et al. — Food Res Int (2020). [Analytical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32156365/
Chang SK et al. — Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29360387/
Prakash A & Baskaran R — J Food Sci Technol (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30150795/
Cefali LC et al. — J AOAC Int (2018). [Analytical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29895343/
Nowak D et al. — J Food Sci (2018). [Comparative]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30044505/
Hemilä H & Chalker E — Cochrane Review (2013). [SR + meta-analysis (29 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23440782/
EFSA — Health Claims Register (2012). [Regulatory].
Vitamin C bioavailability — established (Established). [Established science].
IOM — Smoker recommendation (Established). [Government reference].
The Benefits of Avocado
Avocado
Avocado is a nutrient-dense fruit rich in healthy monounsaturated fats, potassium, vitamin E, vitamin K, folate, and fibre. As a functional ingredient, it provides healthy fats that support the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and nutrients, alongside its own nutritional benefits for skin, heart, and metabolic health.
Key Highlights
- Rich in monounsaturated fats for heart health
- Good source of vitamin E, K, potassium, and folate
- Supports absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
- Provides fibre and antioxidants
Biochemistry Timeline
The nutrients in avocado extract, including healthy monounsaturated fats, potassium, and vitamins E and K, are absorbed through standard digestive processes. The fats in avocado can also enhance absorption of fat-soluble vitamins from other foods or supplements taken at the same time.
Summary
Avocado is a nutrient-dense ingredient providing healthy fats, vitamins, and minerals. Its monounsaturated fat content supports the absorption of fat-soluble nutrients and contributes to heart and skin health.
FAQs
Why is avocado in a supplement formula?
Avocado extract provides concentrated nutrients including vitamin E, potassium, and beneficial fatty acids. These compounds support skin health, cellular function, and help with absorption of fat-soluble nutrients.
Is avocado extract suitable for people with latex allergies?
Some individuals with latex allergies may also react to avocado due to cross-reactive proteins. If you have a known latex allergy, consult your healthcare provider before taking avocado-containing supplements.
Research
Ford NA et al. — Foods (2023). [Nutritional analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37444254/
Conceição AR et al. — Nutr Res (2022). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35405602/
Dreher ML et al. — Nutrients (2021). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34959933/
Cervantes-Paz B & Yahia EM — Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf (2021). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34146454/
Bhuyan DJ et al. — Antioxidants (Basel) (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31554332/
Nutritional profile — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
6 studies — Avocado
Ford NA et al. — Foods (2023). [Nutritional analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37444254/
Conceição AR et al. — Nutr Res (2022). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35405602/
Dreher ML et al. — Nutrients (2021). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34959933/
Cervantes-Paz B & Yahia EM — Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf (2021). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34146454/
Bhuyan DJ et al. — Antioxidants (Basel) (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31554332/
Nutritional profile — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
The Benefits of Beta-Carotene
Beta-Carotene
Provitamin A form
Beta-carotene is the orange pigment in carrots, sweet potato, pumpkin and dark leafy greens, and it is the form of vitamin A that comes from plants. Rather than arriving ready to use, it is converted into vitamin A only as quickly as the body needs it. That built in restraint is why it is the form we chose for the Pregnancy Multi.
Key Highlights
- As a source of vitamin A, contributes to the maintenance of normal vision (EFSA approved)
- As a source of vitamin A, supports the normal function of the immune system (EFSA approved)
- As a source of vitamin A, contributes to the maintenance of normal skin (EFSA approved)
- As a source of vitamin A, supports the maintenance of normal mucous membranes (EFSA approved)
- As a source of vitamin A, has a role in the process of cell specialisation (EFSA approved)
- As a source of vitamin A, contributes to normal iron metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Converted to vitamin A only as the body needs it, so it does not accumulate the way preformed retinol can
Biochemistry Timeline
Beta-carotene is fat soluble, so it is absorbed best alongside a meal that contains some fat. A little olive oil on the salad or butter on the roasted carrots genuinely makes a difference. Blood levels begin to rise within days of steady intake and level off over several weeks.
Because the body converts it on demand rather than all at once, beta-carotene behaves as a steady background supply rather than a quick correction. Where vitamin A needs restoring quickly, that is a job for preformed vitamin A under medical supervision. For everyday maintenance, which is what most people are actually after, the slower and self limiting route is the point rather than a drawback.
In Pregnancy
This is the reason beta-carotene is in our Pregnancy Multi. Vitamin A matters a great deal in pregnancy, for fetal development and for the mother, and yet preformed retinol above the upper limit is associated with birth defects. That leaves an uncomfortable gap between needing enough and not wanting too much.
Beta-carotene closes it. Because conversion is governed by vitamin A status, it supplies what is needed without the same risk of excess. EFSA's 2024 review of upper intake levels retained the 3,000 µg RE a day limit for preformed vitamin A and found no indication that beta-carotene from the background diet is associated with adverse effects (EFSA, 2024).
Your prenatal is not the only thing on the list, though. If you are also taking a separate vitamin A supplement, or using a prescription retinoid for your skin, those are worth raising with your midwife or doctor before you add anything else.
If You Smoke, Please Read This
We would rather tell you this than sell you something. Two large trials, ATBC in Finland and CARET in the United States, gave high dose beta-carotene supplements to smokers and to people exposed to asbestos. Both found more lung cancer in the supplemented group, not less (ATBC Study Group, 1994; Omenn et al., 1996), and the finding has held up in later analysis.
EFSA's position, reaffirmed in 2024, is that smokers should avoid food supplements containing beta-carotene, and that everyone else should use supplemental beta-carotene only to meet vitamin A requirements (EFSA, 2024). Beta-carotene from food is not implicated. It is high dose supplements in smokers that carry the signal.
So if you smoke, or you have recently stopped, tell us and we will leave beta-carotene out of your plan. There are other ways to cover vitamin A and we would rather use one of them.
Summary
Beta-carotene is the plant form of vitamin A, found in carrots, sweet potato, pumpkin and dark leafy greens. The body converts it to vitamin A on demand, so it supports normal vision, skin, mucous membranes, immune function, cell specialisation and iron metabolism through vitamin A, without delivering more than is needed.
That self regulating quality is why it suits pregnancy, where preformed retinol has to stay below 3,000 µg RE a day. The one clear exception is smoking. EFSA advises smokers to avoid beta-carotene supplements, so if that is you, this is not the right ingredient and we will say so rather than let you find out later.
FAQs
How much beta-carotene covers my vitamin A requirement?
EFSA works on a conversion factor of six to one for dietary beta-carotene, so roughly 6 µg of beta-carotene provides about 1 µg of retinol equivalent. The reference intake for adult women is 650 µg RE a day. In practice, a varied diet with some orange and dark green vegetables in it already does a good deal of this work.
Is beta-carotene safer than retinol?
For the specific risk of taking too much vitamin A, yes. Retinol is absorbed ready to use and is stored in the liver, which is why it carries an upper limit of 3,000 µg RE a day. Beta-carotene is converted only as needed, and EFSA found no indication that beta-carotene from the everyday diet causes harm. The trade off is that it is a slower and less certain way to raise vitamin A levels, and it is not suitable for smokers.
Can I take it while pregnant?
Beta-carotene is the form of vitamin A generally preferred in pregnancy, and that is exactly why we use it in the Pregnancy Multi. What matters more is the total across everything you take, so if you have another supplement containing vitamin A, or you use a retinoid cream, bring those up with your midwife or doctor.
Why do some people convert it poorly?
Conversion depends on the BCO1 enzyme, and common variations in the gene that makes it mean some people convert beta-carotene noticeably less efficiently than others (Lietz et al., 2012). It is one reason two people can eat the same amount of carrot and end up in different places. If you eat little or no animal food and rely on beta-carotene entirely, it is worth knowing about.
Will it turn my skin orange?
At the amounts used in a supplement, very unlikely. It happens with sustained high intake, usually from a lot of carrot or carrot juice, and it shows as a faint golden tint on the palms and soles. It is harmless and it fades once intake comes down. The whites of the eyes stay white, which is how it is told apart from jaundice.
Research
Cavero-Redondo I et al. – Nutrients (2026). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41978094/
Chung J et al. – Gut Liver (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40776687/
NIH ODS – Vitamin A and Carotenoids Health Professional Fact Sheet (2025). [Regulatory / Reference]. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminA-HealthProfessional/
Lampousi AM et al. – Adv Nutr (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38493875/
Niu F et al. – Nutr Neurosci (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36961747/
EFSA NDA Panel – Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level for preformed vitamin A and β-carotene, EFSA Journal (2024). [Regulatory / Reference]. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2024.8814
Zhang Y et al. – Nutr Rev (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36715090/
Gao SS et al. – Osteoporos Int (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36380163/
Abrego-Guandique DM et al. – Brain Sci (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37891835/
Evans JR et al. – Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2023). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37702300/
Kordiak J et al. – Nutrients (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35405977/
Yang J et al. – Nutrients (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35334942/
Corbi G et al. – Front Med (Lausanne) (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35928292/
Zhang Y et al. – Front Nutr (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35548582/
Peraita-Costa I et al. – Nutr Cancer (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33356587/
Charkos TG et al. – BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33129293/
Cortés-Jofré M et al. – Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32130738/
Quadro L et al. – Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31863969/
Jayedi A et al. – Public Health Nutr (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30630552/
Middha P et al. – Nicotine Tob Res (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29889248/
Zhao LG et al. – Sci Rep (2016). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27243945/
Yu N et al. – Nutrients (2015). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26569298/
EFSA NDA Panel – Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for vitamin A, EFSA Journal (2015). [Regulatory / Reference]. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4028
Christian P et al. – Am J Clin Nutr (2013). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23151532/
Lietz G et al. – Mol Nutr Food Res (2012). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22147584/
EFSA NDA Panel – Statement on the safety of β-carotene use in heavy smokers, EFSA Journal (2012). [Regulatory / Reference]. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2953
Köpcke W et al. – Photochem Photobiol (2008). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18086246/
Goodman GE et al. – J Natl Cancer Inst (2004). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15572756/
Omenn GS et al. – N Engl J Med (1996). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8602180/
Hennekens CH et al. – N Engl J Med (1996). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8602179/
Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group – N Engl J Med (1994). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8127329/
31 studies — Beta-Carotene
Cavero-Redondo I et al. – Nutrients (2026). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41978094/
Chung J et al. – Gut Liver (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40776687/
NIH ODS – Vitamin A and Carotenoids Health Professional Fact Sheet (2025). [Regulatory / Reference]. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminA-HealthProfessional/
Lampousi AM et al. – Adv Nutr (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38493875/
Niu F et al. – Nutr Neurosci (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36961747/
EFSA NDA Panel – Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level for preformed vitamin A and β-carotene, EFSA Journal (2024). [Regulatory / Reference]. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2024.8814
Zhang Y et al. – Nutr Rev (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36715090/
Gao SS et al. – Osteoporos Int (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36380163/
Abrego-Guandique DM et al. – Brain Sci (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37891835/
Evans JR et al. – Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2023). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37702300/
Kordiak J et al. – Nutrients (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35405977/
Yang J et al. – Nutrients (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35334942/
Corbi G et al. – Front Med (Lausanne) (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35928292/
Zhang Y et al. – Front Nutr (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35548582/
Peraita-Costa I et al. – Nutr Cancer (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33356587/
Charkos TG et al. – BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33129293/
Cortés-Jofré M et al. – Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32130738/
Quadro L et al. – Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31863969/
Jayedi A et al. – Public Health Nutr (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30630552/
Middha P et al. – Nicotine Tob Res (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29889248/
Zhao LG et al. – Sci Rep (2016). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27243945/
Yu N et al. – Nutrients (2015). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26569298/
EFSA NDA Panel – Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for vitamin A, EFSA Journal (2015). [Regulatory / Reference]. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4028
Christian P et al. – Am J Clin Nutr (2013). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23151532/
Lietz G et al. – Mol Nutr Food Res (2012). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22147584/
EFSA NDA Panel – Statement on the safety of β-carotene use in heavy smokers, EFSA Journal (2012). [Regulatory / Reference]. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2953
Köpcke W et al. – Photochem Photobiol (2008). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18086246/
Goodman GE et al. – J Natl Cancer Inst (2004). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15572756/
Omenn GS et al. – N Engl J Med (1996). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8602180/
Hennekens CH et al. – N Engl J Med (1996). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8602179/
Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group – N Engl J Med (1994). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8127329/
The Benefits of Bifidobacterium bifidum
Bifidobacterium bifidum
Probiotic Strain
Bifidobacterium bifidum is a type of "good" bacteria that resides in the intestines and contributes significantly to gut health, immune function, and digestion.
Key Highlights
- One of the first beneficial bacteria to colonise the infant gut
- Supports digestive comfort and gut barrier function
- Helps maintain a balanced intestinal microbiome
- Well-studied probiotic strain with a long history of safe use
Biochemistry Timeline
After ingestion, Bifidobacterium bifidum reaches the large intestine where it colonises and begins producing short-chain fatty acids and lactic acid. These compounds help maintain an acidic gut environment that discourages harmful bacteria. Establishing noticeable changes in digestive comfort typically takes 2 to 4 weeks of daily intake.
Summary
Bifidobacterium bifidum is one of the foundational species of the human gut microbiome. It is among the first bacteria to colonise a newborn's digestive system and continues to play a supporting role throughout life. By producing lactic acid and strengthening the gut lining, B. bifidum contributes to digestive comfort and overall gut health.
FAQs
What does Bifidobacterium bifidum do?
B. bifidum supports the gut lining and produces beneficial acids that help maintain a healthy balance of bacteria in the large intestine. It is particularly well-known for its role in digestive comfort.
How long does it take to notice benefits?
Most people begin to notice improvements in digestive comfort within 2 to 4 weeks of consistent daily intake. Individual results vary depending on your existing gut health.
Can I take probiotics alongside antibiotics?
Yes, but it is best to take them at least 2 hours apart. Probiotics can help replenish beneficial bacteria that antibiotics may reduce. Consult your healthcare provider for specific advice.
Research
Wang LJ et al. — Nutrients (2024). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39064703/
Konstantis G et al. — Nutrients (2023). [Strain-specific review].
Lukasik J et al. — JAMA Pediatr (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35727573/
Siddiqui R et al. — Biology (Basel) (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36421397/
Lee SH et al. — Nat Microbiol (2021). [Preclinical + clinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33432149/
Kim CS et al. — J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci (2021). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32300799/
Andresen V et al. — Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol (2020). [RCT (multicentre, double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32277872/
Gut barrier function — established (Established). [Microbiological].
Mucus layer strengthening — established (Established). [Microbiological].
Infant colonization — established (Established). [Microbiological].
Dendritic cell modulation — established (Established). [Immunological].
Pathogen competition — established (Established). [Microbiological].
12 studies — Bifidobacterium bifidum
Wang LJ et al. — Nutrients (2024). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39064703/
Konstantis G et al. — Nutrients (2023). [Strain-specific review].
Lukasik J et al. — JAMA Pediatr (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35727573/
Siddiqui R et al. — Biology (Basel) (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36421397/
Lee SH et al. — Nat Microbiol (2021). [Preclinical + clinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33432149/
Kim CS et al. — J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci (2021). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32300799/
Andresen V et al. — Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol (2020). [RCT (multicentre, double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32277872/
Gut barrier function — established (Established). [Microbiological].
Mucus layer strengthening — established (Established). [Microbiological].
Infant colonization — established (Established). [Microbiological].
Dendritic cell modulation — established (Established). [Immunological].
Pathogen competition — established (Established). [Microbiological].
The Benefits of Bifidobacterium lactis
Bifidobacterium lactis
Probiotic Strain
Bifidobacterium lactis is a probiotic bacterium with numerous beneficial functions in the human body, particularly for gut health and immune support.
Key Highlights
- Supports immune system function
- Enhances gut barrier integrity
- One of the most researched probiotic strains
- Improves digestive regularity
Biochemistry Timeline
Bifidobacterium lactis survives stomach acid well and reaches the intestine intact, where it begins colonising within days. It interacts with immune cells in the gut lining, contributing to immune modulation. Consistent intake over 2 to 4 weeks is typically needed to establish meaningful colonisation.
Summary
Bifidobacterium lactis is among the most widely studied probiotic strains in the world. It has demonstrated robust survival through stomach acid, strong colonisation abilities, and measurable effects on immune function and digestive regularity. It is a versatile, well-tolerated strain suitable for daily use.
FAQs
What makes B. lactis different from other probiotics?
B. lactis is known for its exceptional ability to survive digestive conditions and reach the gut alive. It is one of the most extensively researched strains, with studies supporting its role in immune function and gut health.
Is B. lactis safe for children?
B. lactis has been widely studied in infants and children and is generally considered safe. It is included in many infant formulas and paediatric probiotic products. Always consult your paediatrician.
Research
Cheng J et al. — JAMA Netw Open (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39356506/
Lai H et al. — Gut Microbes (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37078654/
Lemoine A et al. — Nutrients (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36904230/
Nocerino R et al. — Aliment Pharmacol Ther (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31797399/
Wang X et al. — Gut (2020). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32241904/
Ibarra A et al. — Gut Microbes (2018). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29227175/
Respiratory infection — RCTs (2018-2023). [Multiple RCTs].
Antibiotic recovery — clinical (2018-2024). [Clinical evidence].
Immune modulation — established (Established). [Microbiological].
BB-12 — most studied (Established). [Strain review].
HN019 immune enhancement — established (Established). [Multiple RCTs].
Constipation dose-response — established (Established). [Clinical evidence].
12 studies — Bifidobacterium lactis
Cheng J et al. — JAMA Netw Open (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39356506/
Lai H et al. — Gut Microbes (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37078654/
Lemoine A et al. — Nutrients (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36904230/
Nocerino R et al. — Aliment Pharmacol Ther (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31797399/
Wang X et al. — Gut (2020). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32241904/
Ibarra A et al. — Gut Microbes (2018). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29227175/
Respiratory infection — RCTs (2018-2023). [Multiple RCTs].
Antibiotic recovery — clinical (2018-2024). [Clinical evidence].
Immune modulation — established (Established). [Microbiological].
BB-12 — most studied (Established). [Strain review].
HN019 immune enhancement — established (Established). [Multiple RCTs].
Constipation dose-response — established (Established). [Clinical evidence].
The Benefits of Bifidobacterium longum
Bifidobacterium longum
Probiotic strain
Bifidobacterium longum is a "good" bacteria that resides in the human intestines and provides numerous health benefits. As with other probiotics, its specific effects are often strain-dependent. It helps maintain a healthy gut and also influences the immune system and mental health.
Key Highlights
- One of the most abundant species in the healthy adult gut
- Produces B vitamins and short-chain fatty acids
- Supports digestive balance and comfort
- Studied for its role in stress and mood support via the gut-brain axis
Biochemistry Timeline
Bifidobacterium longum colonises the large intestine and begins fermenting dietary fibres to produce short-chain fatty acids, particularly acetate. These acids nourish the gut lining and support a healthy intestinal environment. Some research suggests B. longum may also influence the gut-brain axis, with effects on stress responses observed over 4 to 8 weeks.
Summary
Bifidobacterium longum is a cornerstone species of the healthy gut microbiome. It is one of the most naturally abundant bifidobacteria in the human digestive tract and plays a role in fibre fermentation, vitamin production, and maintaining gut barrier integrity. Emerging research is also exploring its connection to the gut-brain axis.
FAQs
Why is B. longum considered important?
As one of the most naturally abundant species in the healthy human gut, B. longum plays a fundamental role in digestion, nutrient production, and maintaining a balanced microbiome.
Does B. longum help with stress?
Some clinical studies have found that specific strains of B. longum may support normal stress responses via the gut-brain axis, though this research is still in its early stages.
Research
Srivastava S et al. — Gut Microbes (2024). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38630015/
Martin FP et al. — Gut Microbes (2024). [RCT analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38717445/
Yu J et al. — Cell Host Microbe (2024). [Clinical + mechanistic]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38091982/
Boehme M et al. — Nutrients (2023). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37513541/
Mills S et al. — Gut Microbes (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36896934/
Hsu YC et al. — Nutrients (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38201846/
Shi S et al. — Nutrients (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36615708/
Kim CS et al. — J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci (2021). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32300799/
Yao S et al. — J Immunol Res (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34337079/
Wang Y et al. — Pharmacol Res (2020). [Clinical trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32305492/
Strain characteristics — established (Established). [Microbiological].
Neonatal dominance — established (Established). [Microbiological].
12 studies — Bifidobacterium longum
Srivastava S et al. — Gut Microbes (2024). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38630015/
Martin FP et al. — Gut Microbes (2024). [RCT analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38717445/
Yu J et al. — Cell Host Microbe (2024). [Clinical + mechanistic]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38091982/
Boehme M et al. — Nutrients (2023). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37513541/
Mills S et al. — Gut Microbes (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36896934/
Hsu YC et al. — Nutrients (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38201846/
Shi S et al. — Nutrients (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36615708/
Kim CS et al. — J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci (2021). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32300799/
Yao S et al. — J Immunol Res (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34337079/
Wang Y et al. — Pharmacol Res (2020). [Clinical trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32305492/
Strain characteristics — established (Established). [Microbiological].
Neonatal dominance — established (Established). [Microbiological].
The Benefits of Blackcurrant Berry Extract
Blackcurrant Berry Extract
We include Blackcurrant Berry Extract for its rich antioxidants, which complement the immune-supporting properties of Vitamin C.
Key Highlights
- Rich in anthocyanins, powerful natural antioxidants
- Contains four times more vitamin C than oranges
- Supports immune function and healthy circulation
- Traditional Nordic berry used for centuries in Scandinavian wellness
Biochemistry Timeline
Anthocyanins from blackcurrant are absorbed in the stomach and small intestine, reaching peak blood levels within 1 to 2 hours. These compounds are metabolised and distributed throughout the body, where they contribute to antioxidant defence. Regular intake over weeks supports sustained antioxidant activity.
Summary
Blackcurrant is a small but mighty Nordic berry, dense with anthocyanins, vitamin C, and polyphenols. It has been part of Scandinavian food culture for generations, and modern research is beginning to understand the science behind what traditional use has long suggested: that this dark berry supports immune health, circulation, and antioxidant protection.
FAQs
What makes blackcurrant special compared to other berries?
Blackcurrants contain exceptionally high levels of anthocyanins and vitamin C compared to most common berries. They also provide gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), an omega-6 fatty acid found in few other food sources.
Is blackcurrant extract safe during pregnancy?
Blackcurrant as a food is generally considered safe. However, concentrated extracts should be discussed with your healthcare provider during pregnancy or breastfeeding.
Research
Escobar-Cervantes C, Vázquez-Martinez C, Gómez-Senent S et al. (2026). Anthocyanin-Rich Extracts from Bilberries and Blackcurrants in Human Health: A Narrative Review of Their Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects. J Clin Med [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41827500/
Cook MD et al. — J Diet Suppl (2026). [Clinical study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41631820/
Oczkowski M, Dziendzikowska K, Kruszewski M et al. (2025). Anthocyanin-Rich Blackcurrant Pomace Mitigates Oxidative Stress and Affects Steroid Metabolism in the Testes of Rats Exposed to Silver Nanoparticles. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41470754/
Morton LC, Paton CD, Aberkane R et al. (2025). No Effect of Acute or Chronic New Zealand Blackcurrant Extract on Cycling Performance or Physiological Responses in Trained Cyclists. Eur J Sport Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39910796/
Naderi A, Gharaat MA, Berjisian E et al. (2025). Effect of one-week New Zealand blackcurrant extract on rowing performance and cognitive function in National team male rowers. Res Sports Med. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39865670/
Ruszkowska J, Drygas W, Kwaśniewska M (2024). The Influence of Berry-Derived Polyphenol Supplementation on Exercise-Induced Oxidative Stress and Cardiovascular Health in Physically Active Individuals. Antioxidants (Basel) [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39765888/
Conrad NJ, Heckler EP, Lee BJ et al. (2024). New Zealand blackcurrant extract modulates the heat shock response in men during exercise in hot ambient conditions. Eur J Appl Physiol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38448730/
da Costa P et al. — J Psychopharmacol (2024). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39262284/
Ghafouri A, Jafari Karegar S, Hajiluian G et al. (2023). The effects of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Rheum ribes on insulin-resistance and apolipoproteins in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Complement Med Ther. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36788517/
Ejaz A et al. — Food Sci Nutr (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37823094/
Alzahrani MA et al. — Cureus (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37641728/
Paton CD, Morton LC, Bomal B et al. (2022). The Effects of Blackcurrant and Caffeine Combinations on Performance and Physiology During Repeated High-Intensity Cycling. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35981712/
Shimada M, Maeda H, Nanashima N et al. (2022). Anthocyanin-rich blackcurrant extract improves long-term memory impairment and emotional abnormality in senescence-accelerated mice. J Food Biochem. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35790009/
Cook MD, Dunne A, Bosworth M et al. (2022). Effect of New Zealand Blackcurrant Extract on Force Steadiness of the Quadriceps Femoris Muscle during Sustained Submaximal Isometric Contraction. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35736015/
Lee BJ, Flood TR, Hiles AM et al. (2022). Anthocyanin-Rich Blackcurrant Extract Preserves Gastrointestinal Barrier Permeability and Reduces Enterocyte Damage but Has No Effect on Microbial Translocation and Inflammation After Exertional Heat Stress. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35287112/
Costello R, Keane KM, Lee BJ et al. (2022). Plasma uptake of selected phenolic acids following New Zealand blackcurrant extract supplementation in humans. J Diet Suppl. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33949254/
Montanari S, Şahin MA, Lee BJ et al. (2020). No Effects of New Zealand Blackcurrant Extract on Physiological and Performance Responses in Trained Male Cyclists Undertaking Repeated Testing across a Week Period. Sports (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32823733/
Staszowska-Karkut M & Materska M — Nutrients (2020). [Analytical study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32059465/
Kashi DS, Shabir A, Da Boit M et al. (2019). The Efficacy of Administering Fruit-Derived Polyphenols to Improve Health Biomarkers, Exercise Performance and Related Physiological Responses. Nutrients [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31591287/
Cortez RE & Gonzalez de Mejia E — J Food Sci (2019). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31454085/
Lee Y et al. — Obesity (Silver Spring) (2019). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30569636/
Lee Y & Lee JY — Nutrients (2019). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31035378/
Paturi G, Butts CA, Monro JA et al. (2018). Effects of Blackcurrant and Dietary Fibers on Large Intestinal Health Biomarkers in Rats. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29388158/
Willems ME, Cousins L, Williams D et al. (2016). Beneficial Effects of New Zealand Blackcurrant Extract on Maximal Sprint Speed during the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test. Sports (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29910290/
Zheng X, Mun S, Lee SG et al. (2016). Anthocyanin-Rich Blackcurrant Extract Attenuates Ovariectomy-Induced Bone Loss in Mice. J Med Food. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27074619/
Schneider M, Esposito D, Lila MA et al. (2016). Formation of whey protein-polyphenol meso-structures as a natural means of creating functional particles. Food Funct. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26857696/
Lee SG, Kim B, Soung do Y et al. (2015). Relationship between oxidative stress and bone mass in obesity and effects of berry supplementation on bone remodeling in obese male mice: an exploratory study. J Med Food. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25198411/
Bailey SJ, Winyard P, Vanhatalo A et al. (2009). Dietary nitrate supplementation reduces the O2 cost of low-intensity exercise and enhances tolerance to high-intensity exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19661447/
Anthocyanin profile — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
GLA content — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
Eye health anthocyanins — established (Established). [Clinical evidence].
Nordic growing conditions — established (Established). [Agricultural/nutritional].
32 studies — Blackcurrant Berry Extract
Escobar-Cervantes C, Vázquez-Martinez C, Gómez-Senent S et al. (2026). Anthocyanin-Rich Extracts from Bilberries and Blackcurrants in Human Health: A Narrative Review of Their Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects. J Clin Med [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41827500/
Cook MD et al. — J Diet Suppl (2026). [Clinical study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41631820/
Oczkowski M, Dziendzikowska K, Kruszewski M et al. (2025). Anthocyanin-Rich Blackcurrant Pomace Mitigates Oxidative Stress and Affects Steroid Metabolism in the Testes of Rats Exposed to Silver Nanoparticles. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41470754/
Morton LC, Paton CD, Aberkane R et al. (2025). No Effect of Acute or Chronic New Zealand Blackcurrant Extract on Cycling Performance or Physiological Responses in Trained Cyclists. Eur J Sport Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39910796/
Naderi A, Gharaat MA, Berjisian E et al. (2025). Effect of one-week New Zealand blackcurrant extract on rowing performance and cognitive function in National team male rowers. Res Sports Med. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39865670/
Ruszkowska J, Drygas W, Kwaśniewska M (2024). The Influence of Berry-Derived Polyphenol Supplementation on Exercise-Induced Oxidative Stress and Cardiovascular Health in Physically Active Individuals. Antioxidants (Basel) [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39765888/
Conrad NJ, Heckler EP, Lee BJ et al. (2024). New Zealand blackcurrant extract modulates the heat shock response in men during exercise in hot ambient conditions. Eur J Appl Physiol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38448730/
da Costa P et al. — J Psychopharmacol (2024). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39262284/
Ghafouri A, Jafari Karegar S, Hajiluian G et al. (2023). The effects of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Rheum ribes on insulin-resistance and apolipoproteins in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Complement Med Ther. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36788517/
Ejaz A et al. — Food Sci Nutr (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37823094/
Alzahrani MA et al. — Cureus (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37641728/
Paton CD, Morton LC, Bomal B et al. (2022). The Effects of Blackcurrant and Caffeine Combinations on Performance and Physiology During Repeated High-Intensity Cycling. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35981712/
Shimada M, Maeda H, Nanashima N et al. (2022). Anthocyanin-rich blackcurrant extract improves long-term memory impairment and emotional abnormality in senescence-accelerated mice. J Food Biochem. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35790009/
Cook MD, Dunne A, Bosworth M et al. (2022). Effect of New Zealand Blackcurrant Extract on Force Steadiness of the Quadriceps Femoris Muscle during Sustained Submaximal Isometric Contraction. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35736015/
Lee BJ, Flood TR, Hiles AM et al. (2022). Anthocyanin-Rich Blackcurrant Extract Preserves Gastrointestinal Barrier Permeability and Reduces Enterocyte Damage but Has No Effect on Microbial Translocation and Inflammation After Exertional Heat Stress. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35287112/
Costello R, Keane KM, Lee BJ et al. (2022). Plasma uptake of selected phenolic acids following New Zealand blackcurrant extract supplementation in humans. J Diet Suppl. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33949254/
Montanari S, Şahin MA, Lee BJ et al. (2020). No Effects of New Zealand Blackcurrant Extract on Physiological and Performance Responses in Trained Male Cyclists Undertaking Repeated Testing across a Week Period. Sports (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32823733/
Staszowska-Karkut M & Materska M — Nutrients (2020). [Analytical study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32059465/
Kashi DS, Shabir A, Da Boit M et al. (2019). The Efficacy of Administering Fruit-Derived Polyphenols to Improve Health Biomarkers, Exercise Performance and Related Physiological Responses. Nutrients [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31591287/
Cortez RE & Gonzalez de Mejia E — J Food Sci (2019). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31454085/
Lee Y et al. — Obesity (Silver Spring) (2019). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30569636/
Lee Y & Lee JY — Nutrients (2019). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31035378/
Paturi G, Butts CA, Monro JA et al. (2018). Effects of Blackcurrant and Dietary Fibers on Large Intestinal Health Biomarkers in Rats. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29388158/
Willems ME, Cousins L, Williams D et al. (2016). Beneficial Effects of New Zealand Blackcurrant Extract on Maximal Sprint Speed during the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test. Sports (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29910290/
Zheng X, Mun S, Lee SG et al. (2016). Anthocyanin-Rich Blackcurrant Extract Attenuates Ovariectomy-Induced Bone Loss in Mice. J Med Food. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27074619/
Schneider M, Esposito D, Lila MA et al. (2016). Formation of whey protein-polyphenol meso-structures as a natural means of creating functional particles. Food Funct. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26857696/
Lee SG, Kim B, Soung do Y et al. (2015). Relationship between oxidative stress and bone mass in obesity and effects of berry supplementation on bone remodeling in obese male mice: an exploratory study. J Med Food. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25198411/
Bailey SJ, Winyard P, Vanhatalo A et al. (2009). Dietary nitrate supplementation reduces the O2 cost of low-intensity exercise and enhances tolerance to high-intensity exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19661447/
Anthocyanin profile — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
GLA content — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
Eye health anthocyanins — established (Established). [Clinical evidence].
Nordic growing conditions — established (Established). [Agricultural/nutritional].
The Benefits of Calcium
Calcium
Dual-Form Blend
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body, with approximately 99% stored in bones and teeth. It is essential for bone structure, muscle function, nerve signalling, and blood clotting. Adequate calcium intake, particularly when combined with vitamin D and K2, supports lifelong bone health and helps reduce the risk of osteoporosis.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to the maintenance of normal bones (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal muscle function (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to the maintenance of normal teeth (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal blood clotting (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal neurotransmission (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal energy-yielding metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Best combined with vitamin D3 and K2 for bone health
Biochemistry Timeline
Calcium absorption depends on vitamin D status and varies by age and hormonal status. The body absorbs roughly 30-35% of dietary calcium. Benefits for bone density require consistent long-term intake, as bone remodelling is a gradual process. Short-term effects on muscle and nerve function occur immediately, as blood calcium levels are tightly regulated.
Blood Clotting
Calcium is essential for the blood clotting cascade. Without adequate calcium, blood would not clot properly. This is one of calcium's most critical functions, and the body prioritises maintaining blood calcium levels even at the expense of bone stores if dietary intake is insufficient. EFSA recognises that calcium contributes to normal blood clotting.
Nerve and Cell Signalling
Calcium ions serve as important signalling molecules throughout the body. They are involved in neurotransmitter release, hormone secretion, and cell-to-cell communication. EFSA recognises that calcium contributes to normal neurotransmission and has a role in the process of cell division and specialisation.
Summary
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body, essential for bone health, muscle function, blood clotting, and nerve signalling. Combined with vitamin D3 and K2, calcium supplementation supports bone density and reduces fracture risk. EFSA recognises its contributions to bones, teeth, muscle function, blood clotting, and neurotransmission. Adequate intake is particularly important for women approaching and after menopause.
FAQs
How much calcium do I need?
The recommended daily intake for adults is 800-1,000 mg. The European upper limit is 2,500 mg/day. Most people benefit from 500-1,000 mg/day from supplements if dietary intake is insufficient.
Should I take calcium with vitamin D?
Yes. Vitamin D significantly improves calcium absorption. Taking calcium alongside vitamin D3 and K2 provides optimal support for bone health. K2 helps direct calcium to bones rather than soft tissues.
Can calcium cause side effects?
High doses can cause constipation and bloating. Splitting doses (taking no more than 500 mg at a time) improves absorption and reduces digestive discomfort.
Is calcium safe during pregnancy?
Yes, calcium is important during pregnancy for maternal bone health and fetal skeletal development. Needs may increase during pregnancy and breastfeeding.
Research
Cong & Zhang — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2025). [Meta-analysis (11 RCTs)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12506016/
Wei Y et al. – PeerJ (2025). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40949733/
Skjøth JB et al. – International journal of circumpolar health (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40388636/
Bai J et al. – Nutrients (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41470812/
Raju S et al. – Nutrients (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40362897/
Lee H et al. – Cancer causes & control : CCC (2025). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40866745/
Clarke et al — J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgae693
Guo et al — Function (Oxf) (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/function/zqaf032
Staab et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000003553
Gerede et al — Medicina (Kaunas) (2025). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61071195
Gerber et al — Pflugers Arch (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00424-024-03046-4
Wright D et al. – BJOG : an international journal of obstetrics and gynaecology (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38302677/
Zhang Y et al. – Journal of orthopaedic surgery and research (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39127644/
Inpan R et al. – Archives of osteoporosis (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39708251/
Hou J et al. – Frontiers in public health (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39328990/
Park HJ et al. – Osteoporosis international : a journal established as result of cooperation between the European Foundation for Osteoporosis and the National Osteoporosis Foundation of the USA (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38472336/
Jaiswal V et al. – Current problems in cardiology (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38013011/
Zhu Q et al. – Pregnancy hypertension (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39608269/
Lewis et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD013789.pub2
Anagnostis et al — J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgad548
Rejnmark et al — Adv Ther (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12325-024-02843-8
de Souza et al — J Gen Intern Med (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-024-08933-1
Chakhtoura et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011800.pub2
Bloomer et al — Nutrients (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16111766
Cochrane Review — Ca+D in premenopausal women (2023). [Cochrane systematic review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9881395/
Méndez-Sánchez et al. — Cochrane Review (2023). [Cochrane systematic review (7 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36705288/
Mikola T et al. – Critical reviews in food science and nutrition (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35816192/
Liu YH et al. – American journal of obstetrics and gynecology (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36283479/
Al-Saleh Y et al. – Archives of osteoporosis (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37213036/
Pappachan JM et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2023). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36883976/
Peeling P et al. – Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37358750/
Chen WY et al. – Medicine (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37653760/
Sun J et al. – Genome medicine (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37726845/
Karavasiloglou N et al. – The American journal of clinical nutrition (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36789942/
Thakur A et al. – Critical reviews in oncology/hematology (2023). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37257732/
Khan et al — J Bone Miner Res (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbmr.4726
Bickelmann et al — Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2084027
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Hino-Fukuyo et al — Hum Genet (2015). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-015-1553-6
Schubert ML – Current opinion in gastroenterology (2014). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25211241/
Chu S et al. – Current opinion in gastroenterology (2013). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24100729/
Bischoff-Ferrari et al. — NEJM (2012). [Review]. Sex/Life Stage
Bolland et al. — BMJ (2010). [Meta-analysis (11 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20671013/
Lönnerdal B – International journal for vitamin and nutrition research. Internationale Zeitschrift fur Vitamin- und Ernahrungsforschung. Journal international de vitaminologie et de nutrition (2010). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21462112/
Filippatos TD et al. – Drug safety (2008). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18095746/
Bischoff-Ferrari HA et al. - JAMA (2005). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15886381/
Enemark JM et al. – Acta veterinaria Scandinavica. Supplementum (2003). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14621401/
Abrams SA et al. – The Journal of nutrition (2003). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12949399/
Lutter CK et al. – The Journal of nutrition (2003). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12949402/
Meacham SL et al. – The American journal of clinical nutrition (1995). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7840072/
Wise A – International journal of food sciences and nutrition (1995). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7712343/
Walker RC et al. – Mayo Clinic proceedings (1991). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1749294/
Calcium absorption factors — established (Established). [Established science].
The Benefits of Chamomile
Chamomile
Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) is one of the world's most beloved herbal remedies, used for centuries as a gentle aid for relaxation, sleep, and digestive comfort. Its calming properties come from compounds like apigenin, a flavonoid that binds to GABA receptors in the brain, promoting a sense of peaceful calm.
Key Highlights
- One of the most widely consumed herbal remedies worldwide
- Contains apigenin, a flavonoid that promotes calm through GABA receptor binding
- Supports relaxation and natural sleep preparation
- Soothes digestive discomfort with antispasmodic properties
- Gentle and suitable for daily use
- Long history of safe traditional use across many cultures
Biochemistry Timeline
Chamomile's calming effects can be felt within 30 to 60 minutes. For sleep, drinking chamomile tea or taking a supplement 30 to 60 minutes before bedtime is typical. Regular use over several weeks may enhance cumulative benefits.
Summary
Chamomile is one of the world's most trusted herbal remedies for relaxation, sleep, and digestive comfort. Its active compound apigenin promotes gentle calm through GABA receptor modulation. It is safe, mild, and suitable for daily use as part of a calming bedtime routine.
FAQs
Is chamomile safe during pregnancy?
Chamomile tea in moderate amounts is generally considered safe, but supplemental doses should be discussed with your healthcare provider. Those with ragweed allergies should use caution, as chamomile is in the same plant family.
Research
Firoozi Z et al. — Food Sci Nutr (2026). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41767834/
Valmy J et al. — Pharm Biol (2025). [SR + meta-analysis (11 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40665590/
Ostovar M et al. — Complement Ther Med (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40374153/
Kazemi A et al. — Complement Ther Med (2024). [SR + meta-analysis (10 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39106912/
Akhgarjand C et al. — J Diabetes Metab Disord (2023). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38932814/
Zhang W et al. — Pharmacol Res (2022). [SR + network meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35378276/
Ebrahimi H et al. — Explore (NY) (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33454232/
Amsterdam JD et al. — J Altern Complement Med (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31808709/
Lopresti AL et al. — Phytother Res (2020). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32310327/
Hieu TH et al. — Phytother Res (2019). [SR + meta-analysis (12 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31006899/
Chang SM & Chen CH — J Adv Nurs (2016). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26483209/
Mao JJ et al. — J Clin Psychopharmacol (2016). [RCT (long-term)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27912949/
Srivastava JK et al. — Mol Med Rep (2010). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21132119/
Amsterdam JD et al. — J Clin Psychopharmacol (2009). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593179/
Chamomile sleep evidence (Multiple years). [Pilot RCTs + reviews]. General
Chamomile for menstrual pain: clinical trial. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36615326/
Chamomile for anxiety and depression: network meta-analysis. [Meta-analysis]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9611340/
Chamomile and sleep quality in older adults. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38784853/
Chamomile anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3600408/
Chamomile for reducing anxiety in dental patients. [RCT]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5074766/
Chamomile use in traditional and modern medicine. [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8889052/
Chamomile effects on sleep quality: systematic review. [Systematic review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6317209/
Chamomile extract for generalized anxiety disorder. [RCT]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6472148/
Chamomile: a herbal medicine of the past with a bright future. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2995283/
24 studies — Chamomile
Firoozi Z et al. — Food Sci Nutr (2026). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41767834/
Valmy J et al. — Pharm Biol (2025). [SR + meta-analysis (11 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40665590/
Ostovar M et al. — Complement Ther Med (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40374153/
Kazemi A et al. — Complement Ther Med (2024). [SR + meta-analysis (10 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39106912/
Akhgarjand C et al. — J Diabetes Metab Disord (2023). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38932814/
Zhang W et al. — Pharmacol Res (2022). [SR + network meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35378276/
Ebrahimi H et al. — Explore (NY) (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33454232/
Amsterdam JD et al. — J Altern Complement Med (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31808709/
Lopresti AL et al. — Phytother Res (2020). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32310327/
Hieu TH et al. — Phytother Res (2019). [SR + meta-analysis (12 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31006899/
Chang SM & Chen CH — J Adv Nurs (2016). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26483209/
Mao JJ et al. — J Clin Psychopharmacol (2016). [RCT (long-term)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27912949/
Srivastava JK et al. — Mol Med Rep (2010). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21132119/
Amsterdam JD et al. — J Clin Psychopharmacol (2009). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593179/
Chamomile sleep evidence (Multiple years). [Pilot RCTs + reviews]. General
Chamomile for menstrual pain: clinical trial. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36615326/
Chamomile for anxiety and depression: network meta-analysis. [Meta-analysis]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9611340/
Chamomile and sleep quality in older adults. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38784853/
Chamomile anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3600408/
Chamomile for reducing anxiety in dental patients. [RCT]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5074766/
Chamomile use in traditional and modern medicine. [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8889052/
Chamomile effects on sleep quality: systematic review. [Systematic review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6317209/
Chamomile extract for generalized anxiety disorder. [RCT]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6472148/
Chamomile: a herbal medicine of the past with a bright future. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2995283/
The Benefits of Chicory Inulin (Fructo Oligosaccharides)
Chicory Inulin (Fructo Oligosaccharides)
This is a natural prebiotic fiber derived from chicory root. It is included to serve as food for the live cultures, helping to nourish them and support their growth and effectiveness within your digestive system.
Key Highlights
- A natural prebiotic fibre that feeds beneficial gut bacteria
- Supports digestive regularity and gut health
- Derived from chicory root, a well-studied plant source
- May improve calcium absorption in the gut
Biochemistry Timeline
Chicory inulin passes through the stomach and small intestine undigested, arriving intact in the large intestine where it serves as food for beneficial bacteria, particularly Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli. This fermentation process produces short-chain fatty acids that nourish the gut lining. Changes in gut bacteria composition can be observed within 1 to 2 weeks of regular intake.
Summary
Chicory inulin is a natural prebiotic fibre extracted from the root of the chicory plant. Rather than being digested for energy, it travels to your large intestine where it selectively feeds beneficial bacteria. This makes it a valuable companion to probiotic supplements, helping the good bacteria in your gut thrive and multiply.
FAQs
What is the difference between a prebiotic and a probiotic?
Probiotics are live beneficial bacteria. Prebiotics, like chicory inulin, are fibres that feed and support the growth of those bacteria. They work best together.
Can chicory inulin cause digestive discomfort?
Some people may experience mild bloating or gas when first introducing prebiotic fibres, as the gut microbiome adjusts. Starting with a lower dose and gradually increasing usually helps.
How much inulin should I take daily?
Research typically uses doses of 5 to 15 grams per day. Supplement formulations usually contain amounts within this range designed to support gut health without digestive discomfort.
Research
Puhlmann ML, Wegh CAM, van der Zalm SCC et al. (2025). Inulin-induced improvements on bowel habit and gut microbiota in adults with functional constipation: findings of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. BMC Gastroenterol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41233756/
Renton N, Pillinger MH, Toprover M (2025). Gout, Hyperuricemia, and the Intestinal Microbiome. Inflammation [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40616741/
Yu Y, He J, Fu H et al. (2025). Inulin Modulates Gut Microbiota and Increases Short-Chain Fatty Acids Levels to Inhibit Colon Tumorigenesis in Rat Models: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Food Sci [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40331741/
Reimer RA, Theis S, Zanzer YC (2024). The effects of chicory inulin-type fructans supplementation on weight management outcomes: systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression of randomized controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39313030/
Szala-Rycaj J, Szewczyk A, Zagaja M et al. (2023). The Influence of Topinambur and Inulin Preventive Supplementation on Microbiota, Anxious Behavior, Cognitive Functions and Neurogenesis in Mice Exposed to the Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432210/
Nagy DU, Sándor-Bajusz KA, Bódy B et al. (2023). Effect of chicory-derived inulin-type fructans on abundance of Bifidobacterium and on bowel function: a systematic review with meta-analyses. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35833477/
Al-Najjar Y, Arabi M, Paul P et al. (2022). Can probiotic, prebiotic, and synbiotic supplementation modulate the gut-liver axis in type 2 diabetes? A narrative and systematic review of clinical trials. Front Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36532552/
Herosimczyk A, Lepczyński A, Werkowska M et al. (2022). Dietary Inclusion of Dried Chicory Root Affects Cecal Mucosa Proteome of Nursery Pigs. Animals (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35804609/
Tawfick MM, Xie H, Zhao C et al. (2022). Inulin fructans in diet: Role in gut homeostasis, immunity, health outcomes and potential therapeutics. Int J Biol Macromol [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35381290/
Lepczyński A, Herosimczyk A, Barszcz M et al. (2021). Diet supplemented either with dried chicory root or chicory inulin significantly influence kidney and liver mineral content and antioxidative capacity in growing pigs. Animal. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33573962/
Herosimczyk A, Lepczyński A, Ożgo M et al. (2020). Effect of dietary inclusion of 1% or 3% of native chicory inulin on the large intestinal mucosa proteome of growing pigs. Animal. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32167440/
Watson AW, Houghton D, Avery PJ et al. (2019). Changes in stool frequency following chicory inulin consumption, and effects on stool consistency, quality of life and composition of gut microbiota. Food Hydrocoll. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31680713/
Thumann TA, Pferschy-Wenzig EM, Moissl-Eichinger C et al. (2019). The role of gut microbiota for the activity of medicinal plants traditionally used in the European Union for gastrointestinal disorders. J Ethnopharmacol [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31408679/
Pol K, de Graaf C, Meyer D et al. (2018). The efficacy of daily snack replacement with oligofructose-enriched granola bars in overweight and obese adults: a 12-week randomised controlled trial. Br J Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29490721/
Lepczyński A, Herosimczyk A, Ożgo M et al. (2017). Dietary chicory root and chicory inulin trigger changes in energetic metabolism, stress prevention and cytoskeletal proteins in the liver of growing pigs - a proteomic study. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27859709/
Neyrinck AM, Pachikian B, Taminiau B et al. (2016). Intestinal Sucrase as a Novel Target Contributing to the Regulation of Glycemia by Prebiotics. PLoS One. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27532866/
Farhangi MA, Javid AZ, Dehghan P (2016). The effect of enriched chicory inulin on liver enzymes, calcium homeostasis and hematological parameters in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. Prim Care Diabetes. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26872721/
Awad WA, Ghareeb K, Böhm J (2011). Evaluation of the chicory inulin efficacy on ameliorating the intestinal morphology and modulating the intestinal electrophysiological properties in broiler chickens. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20579180/
Sokić ZB, Martinov OB, Knezević J et al. (2008). [The effect of natural probiotic inulin to the quantitative microbiological indicators of bifidogenic effect: in vitro research]. Med Pregl. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18773695/
Lesniewska V, Rowland I, Laerke HN et al. (2006). Relationship between dietary-induced changes in intestinal commensal microflora and duodenojejunal myoelectric activity monitored by radiotelemetry in the rat in vivo. Exp Physiol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263800/
20 studies — Chicory Inulin (Fructo Oligosaccharides)
Puhlmann ML, Wegh CAM, van der Zalm SCC et al. (2025). Inulin-induced improvements on bowel habit and gut microbiota in adults with functional constipation: findings of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. BMC Gastroenterol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41233756/
Renton N, Pillinger MH, Toprover M (2025). Gout, Hyperuricemia, and the Intestinal Microbiome. Inflammation [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40616741/
Yu Y, He J, Fu H et al. (2025). Inulin Modulates Gut Microbiota and Increases Short-Chain Fatty Acids Levels to Inhibit Colon Tumorigenesis in Rat Models: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Food Sci [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40331741/
Reimer RA, Theis S, Zanzer YC (2024). The effects of chicory inulin-type fructans supplementation on weight management outcomes: systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression of randomized controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39313030/
Szala-Rycaj J, Szewczyk A, Zagaja M et al. (2023). The Influence of Topinambur and Inulin Preventive Supplementation on Microbiota, Anxious Behavior, Cognitive Functions and Neurogenesis in Mice Exposed to the Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432210/
Nagy DU, Sándor-Bajusz KA, Bódy B et al. (2023). Effect of chicory-derived inulin-type fructans on abundance of Bifidobacterium and on bowel function: a systematic review with meta-analyses. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35833477/
Al-Najjar Y, Arabi M, Paul P et al. (2022). Can probiotic, prebiotic, and synbiotic supplementation modulate the gut-liver axis in type 2 diabetes? A narrative and systematic review of clinical trials. Front Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36532552/
Herosimczyk A, Lepczyński A, Werkowska M et al. (2022). Dietary Inclusion of Dried Chicory Root Affects Cecal Mucosa Proteome of Nursery Pigs. Animals (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35804609/
Tawfick MM, Xie H, Zhao C et al. (2022). Inulin fructans in diet: Role in gut homeostasis, immunity, health outcomes and potential therapeutics. Int J Biol Macromol [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35381290/
Lepczyński A, Herosimczyk A, Barszcz M et al. (2021). Diet supplemented either with dried chicory root or chicory inulin significantly influence kidney and liver mineral content and antioxidative capacity in growing pigs. Animal. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33573962/
Herosimczyk A, Lepczyński A, Ożgo M et al. (2020). Effect of dietary inclusion of 1% or 3% of native chicory inulin on the large intestinal mucosa proteome of growing pigs. Animal. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32167440/
Watson AW, Houghton D, Avery PJ et al. (2019). Changes in stool frequency following chicory inulin consumption, and effects on stool consistency, quality of life and composition of gut microbiota. Food Hydrocoll. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31680713/
Thumann TA, Pferschy-Wenzig EM, Moissl-Eichinger C et al. (2019). The role of gut microbiota for the activity of medicinal plants traditionally used in the European Union for gastrointestinal disorders. J Ethnopharmacol [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31408679/
Pol K, de Graaf C, Meyer D et al. (2018). The efficacy of daily snack replacement with oligofructose-enriched granola bars in overweight and obese adults: a 12-week randomised controlled trial. Br J Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29490721/
Lepczyński A, Herosimczyk A, Ożgo M et al. (2017). Dietary chicory root and chicory inulin trigger changes in energetic metabolism, stress prevention and cytoskeletal proteins in the liver of growing pigs - a proteomic study. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27859709/
Neyrinck AM, Pachikian B, Taminiau B et al. (2016). Intestinal Sucrase as a Novel Target Contributing to the Regulation of Glycemia by Prebiotics. PLoS One. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27532866/
Farhangi MA, Javid AZ, Dehghan P (2016). The effect of enriched chicory inulin on liver enzymes, calcium homeostasis and hematological parameters in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. Prim Care Diabetes. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26872721/
Awad WA, Ghareeb K, Böhm J (2011). Evaluation of the chicory inulin efficacy on ameliorating the intestinal morphology and modulating the intestinal electrophysiological properties in broiler chickens. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20579180/
Sokić ZB, Martinov OB, Knezević J et al. (2008). [The effect of natural probiotic inulin to the quantitative microbiological indicators of bifidogenic effect: in vitro research]. Med Pregl. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18773695/
Lesniewska V, Rowland I, Laerke HN et al. (2006). Relationship between dietary-induced changes in intestinal commensal microflora and duodenojejunal myoelectric activity monitored by radiotelemetry in the rat in vivo. Exp Physiol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263800/
The Benefits of Chromium
Chromium
Bioavailable From
We use Chromium Picolinate for its superior bioavailability, that is easily absorbed and utilized by the body to support normal macronutrient metabolism.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to normal macronutrient metabolism
- Helps maintain normal blood glucose levels (EFSA approved)
- Supports insulin sensitivity
- Involved in carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism
Biochemistry Timeline
Chromium is absorbed in the small intestine, though absorption rates are relatively low (0.4 to 2.5% of dietary intake). Once absorbed, it is transported in the blood bound to transferrin. Chromium's effects on blood glucose management are gradual. Most studies observe meaningful changes over 8 to 16 weeks of consistent supplementation.
Summary
Chromium is a trace mineral that contributes to normal macronutrient metabolism and helps maintain normal blood glucose levels. While severe deficiency is rare, ensuring adequate intake supports your body's natural ability to process carbohydrates and maintain steady energy throughout the day.
FAQs
How much chromium do I need daily?
The EU adequate intake for adults is 25 to 35 micrograms per day. Most people get sufficient chromium from a varied diet that includes whole grains, broccoli, and lean meats.
Is chromium safe to take long term?
At recommended doses, chromium supplementation is generally considered safe for long-term use. The trivalent form (chromium picolinate or chromium chloride) used in supplements has a strong safety profile.
Does chromium help with weight management?
While chromium plays a role in macronutrient metabolism, the evidence for chromium supplements directly causing weight loss is limited. It may support healthy metabolism as part of a balanced lifestyle.
Research
Abizaid et al — Lancet (2026). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(25)02157-9
Hamsho et al. — Endocrinología (ScienceDirect) (2025). [Meta-analysis (10 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41067797/
Gholami A et al. – Biological trace element research (2025). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39671146/
Monfared V et al. – Journal of trace elements in medicine and biology : organ of the Society for Minerals and Trace Elements (GMS) (2025). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245649/
Zhao G et al. – Reproductive biology and endocrinology : RB&E (2025). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40611279/
Kechagia et al — Hormones (Athens) (2025). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42000-024-00604-4
Ancu et al — Eur J Nutr (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-025-03732-8
Martinez et al — Nutrients (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17122042
Systematic Review — Chromium on insulin resistance (2024). [Systematic review & MA (20 RCTs)]. https://www.asianinstituteofresearch.org/JHMSarchives/the-effect-of-chromium-supplements-on-insulin-resistance
Dose-response MA — JACC Advances (2024). [Dose-response MA (64 RCTs)]. https://www.jacc.org/doi/10.1016/j.jacadv.2023.100729
Malik MI et al. – Journal of dairy science (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37709042/
Vajdi M et al. – Journal of trace elements in medicine and biology : organ of the Society for Minerals and Trace Elements (GMS) (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37952433/
Pokorska-Niewiada K et al. – Ginekologia polska (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37713235/
Timbó ICG et al. – The Journal of prosthetic dentistry (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36357193/
Georgaki et al — Environ Geochem Health (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-024-02297-5
Issah et al — Sci Total Environ (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168380
Vajdi et al. — Biol Trace Elem Res (2023). [Umbrella review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36376714/
Xia J et al. – Pharmacological research (2023). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36638933/
Alkhalidi et al — J Med Life (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.25122/jml-2023-0081
Hu et al — PeerJ (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.16410
Mertz et al — J Arthroplasty (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arth.2022.09.008
Kim Y et al. – Archives of pharmacal research (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35304727/
Zhao et al — Biol Trace Elem Res (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-021-02693-3
Basile et al — Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2022.111279
Kayani et al — Bone Joint J (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.104B7.BJJ-2021-1673.R1
Asbaghi et al — Complement Ther Med (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2021.102755
Asbaghi et al — J Trace Elem Med Biol (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2021.126741
Feng et al — PLoS One (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249527
Kooshki et al — Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol (2021). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/1440-1681.13462
Hartmann-Boyce et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD006219.pub4
den Braver-Sewradj et al — Regul Toxicol Pharmacol (2021). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2021.105045
Kim et al — J Arthroplasty (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arth.2020.11.010
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Tian H et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2013). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24293292/
Sylvia LG et al. – Psychotherapy and psychosomatics (2013). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23147067/
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Brownley KA et al. – Journal of dietary supplements (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24237190/
Parsons A et al. – Drug and alcohol dependence (2009). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19328636/
Docherty JP et al. – Journal of psychiatric practice (2005). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16184071/
Frank MG et al. – Psychological medicine (2004). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15259834/
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76 studies — Chromium
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Hartmann-Boyce et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD006219.pub4
den Braver-Sewradj et al — Regul Toxicol Pharmacol (2021). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2021.105045
Kim et al — J Arthroplasty (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arth.2020.11.010
Asbaghi et al. — Pharmacol Res (2020). [Meta-analysis (25 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32553908/
Frauchiger et al. — Curr Diabetes Rev (2020). [Systematic review]. General
Asbaghi O et al. – Pharmacological research (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32730903/
Jamilian M et al. – Biological trace element research (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30977089/
Baj J et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2020). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33334078/
Asbaghi O et al. — Pharmacol Res (2020). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32092397/
Derosa et al — Phytother Res (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6611
Derosa et al — Phytother Res (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6272
Jie et al — PLoS One (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223402
Jamilian et al. — Frontiers in Endocrinology (2018). [RCT (double-blind, placebo-controlled)]. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/endocrinology/articles/10.3389/fendo.2018.00726/full
Tang et al. — J Obstet Gynaecol Res (2018). [Meta-analysis (6 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28929602/
Heshmati et al. — Horm Metab Res (2018). [Meta-analysis (5 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29523006/
Nussbaumerova et al — Biol Trace Elem Res (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-017-1128-6
Li et al — Fish Physiol Biochem (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10695-018-0514-0
Mazza et al — Food Funct (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8fo00415c
Yanni et al — Eur J Nutr (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-016-1315-9
Jamilian et al — Biol Trace Elem Res (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-017-1236-3
Fazelian et al. — J Trace Elem Med Biol (2017). [Systematic review & meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28595797/
Vincent JB - Nutrition Reviews (2017). [Expert Review]. Metabolic Health
Sala et al — J Diet Suppl (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/19390211.2016.1207124
Ziegenfuss et al — J Int Soc Sports Nutr (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0163-1
Arentz et al — BMC Complement Altern Med (2017). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-017-2011-x
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Ashoush et al — J Obstet Gynaecol Res (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jog.12907
Jamilian et al — Biol Trace Elem Res (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-015-0570-6
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Yin et al — Nutr J (2015). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-14-14
Jamilian et al — Ann Nutr Metab (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000438465
EFSA NDA Panel — EFSA Journal (2014). [Regulatory / Scientific Opinion]. Regulatory / Foundational
Suksomboon N et al. - Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics (2014). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24635480/
EFSA Panel - EFSA Journal (2014). [Scientific Opinion]. Regulatory
Suksomboon N et al. — J Clin Pharm Ther (2014). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25180019/
Tian H et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2013). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24293292/
Sylvia LG et al. – Psychotherapy and psychosomatics (2013). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23147067/
Brownley KA et al. – Journal of psychosomatic research (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23751236/
Brownley KA et al. – Journal of dietary supplements (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24237190/
Parsons A et al. – Drug and alcohol dependence (2009). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19328636/
Docherty JP et al. – Journal of psychiatric practice (2005). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16184071/
Frank MG et al. – Psychological medicine (2004). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15259834/
Davidson JR et al. – Biological psychiatry (2003). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12559660/
Vincent JB — Nutr Rev (2000). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10885323/
Anderson RA — Diabetes Technol Ther (2000). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11467671/
Chromium picolinate mechanism — established (Established). [Established science].
The Benefits of CoQ10
CoQ10
Antioxidant
Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is a naturally occurring antioxidant that plays a central role in cellular energy production. Found in every cell in the body, CoQ10 is essential for the function of mitochondria, the structures that generate energy for your cells. Our bodies produce CoQ10 naturally, but production declines with age, making supplementation increasingly relevant from your 30s onwards.
Key Highlights
- Essential for cellular energy production (ATP synthesis)
- Powerful antioxidant that protects cells from oxidative damage
- Natural production declines from age 20 onwards
- Supports cardiovascular health and heart function
- May support fertility and egg quality in women over 30
- Found in every cell, with highest concentrations in heart, liver, and kidneys
Biochemistry Timeline
CoQ10 supplementation typically takes 4 to 12 weeks to reach steady-state levels in the body. Because CoQ10 is fat-soluble, it is best absorbed when taken with a meal containing dietary fat. The ubiquinol form (reduced CoQ10) may be better absorbed than ubiquinone, particularly in older adults.
Benefits such as improved energy levels may be noticed within 2 to 4 weeks, while cardiovascular and fertility-related benefits typically require longer-term, consistent supplementation of 8 to 12 weeks or more.
Fertility and Egg Quality
CoQ10 has gained significant attention in reproductive health research. As egg cells (oocytes) require enormous amounts of energy for maturation and division, the age-related decline in CoQ10 production may contribute to declining egg quality.
A 2024 meta-analysis (Shang et al.) found that among antioxidant supplements studied for ovarian health, CoQ10 was more effective than melatonin, myo-inositol, or vitamins at increasing retrieved oocytes and high-quality embryo rates. The optimal dose identified was 30 mg/day for 3 months, with women under 35 with diminished ovarian reserve benefiting most.
Another meta-analysis (Florou et al., 2020) found that CoQ10 significantly increased clinical pregnancy rates (28.8% vs 14.1%) in women undergoing assisted reproduction. Research by Brown et al. (2023) confirmed that CoQ10 improved fertilisation rates, embryo maturation, and embryo quality in women aged 31 and above.
Skin Health and Ageing
CoQ10 levels in the skin decrease with age and with exposure to UV radiation. As a potent antioxidant, CoQ10 helps protect skin cells from oxidative damage, which contributes to visible signs of ageing such as fine lines and reduced elasticity.
Supplementation supports CoQ10 levels from within, complementing topical skincare. By protecting mitochondria in skin cells, CoQ10 helps maintain the energy production needed for cellular renewal and repair. This internal approach to skin health aligns with the growing understanding that how we nourish our bodies from the inside reflects on the outside.
Summary
CoQ10 is a naturally occurring compound essential for cellular energy production and antioxidant protection. Found in every cell, it is particularly important for the heart, brain, and other high-energy organs. Natural production declines with age, making supplementation increasingly relevant from the 30s onwards.
Research supports CoQ10's role in cardiovascular health, fertility support, and protection against oxidative stress. It is fat-soluble and best taken with food, with benefits typically becoming noticeable within 4 to 12 weeks of consistent use.
FAQs
At what age should I consider CoQ10 supplementation?
Natural CoQ10 production begins declining around age 20 and drops significantly by age 40. Supplementation is most commonly recommended from the 30s onwards, particularly for those concerned about energy levels, heart health, or fertility.
What is the difference between ubiquinone and ubiquinol?
Ubiquinone is the oxidised form of CoQ10, while ubiquinol is the reduced (active) form. Both are effective, but ubiquinol may be better absorbed, particularly by older adults. The body can convert between the two forms as needed.
Can I take CoQ10 with other supplements?
Yes, CoQ10 is generally well-tolerated alongside other supplements. It works synergistically with vitamin E and may enhance the effects of omega-3 fatty acids. If you take blood-thinning medication (such as warfarin), consult your healthcare provider first.
Are there any side effects?
CoQ10 is considered safe and well-tolerated at standard supplementation levels. Rare side effects may include mild digestive discomfort, which can usually be resolved by taking it with food.
Is CoQ10 safe during pregnancy?
CoQ10 has been studied in the context of fertility and preconception health. However, if you are pregnant or planning to become pregnant, consult your healthcare provider before starting any new supplement.
Research
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Drovandi et al — Kidney Int (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kint.2022.02.040
Awad et al — Front Cardiovasc Med (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2022.857364
Sangouni et al — Nutr J (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-022-00816-7
Cicero et al — Biofactors (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/biof.1839
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Broome et al — Redox Biol (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2022.102341
Gamal et al — CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871527320666211124093345
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Castro-Marrero J et al. – Nutrients (2021). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34444817/
Leão APA et al. – Research in veterinary science (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33607571/
Cong S et al. – Journal of neurology (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32162061/
Rabanal-Ruiz Y et al. — Antioxidants (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33530419/
Al Saadi et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008684.pub3
Broome et al — J Int Soc Sports Nutr (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-021-00454-0
Alahmar et al — Biol Trace Elem Res (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-020-02251-3
Fang et al — Zhongguo Zhen Jiu (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.13703/j.0255-2930.20200404-k0004
Ashton et al — Can J Psychiatry (2021). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743720961734
Mollazadeh et al — J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle (2021). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcsm.12654
Rodríguez-Varela et al — Int J Mol Sci (2021). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22179541
Daehn et al — Nat Rev Drug Discov (2021). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41573-021-00242-0
Singh et al — EBioMedicine (2021). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103244
Florou et al. 2020 - CoQ10 ART outcomes MA (2020). [SR + meta-analysis (5 RCTs)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7550497/
Mantle D & Dybring A - Antioxidants (2020). [Comprehensive Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33066005/
Parohan M et al. – Nutritional neuroscience (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30727862/
Kennedy C et al. – Atherosclerosis (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32179207/
Kloer HU et al. – Heart, lung & circulation (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31668616/
Mantle D et al. – Antioxidants (Basel, Switzerland) (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32380795/
Sazali S et al. — Complement Ther Med (2020). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32444043/
Williamson et al — Redox Biol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2020.101673
Sabbatinelli et al — Nutrients (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041098
Lowry et al — Nutrients (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092664
Diaz-Castro et al — Nutrients (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12020424
Marx et al — Mult Scler Relat Disord (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msard.2019.101486
Schweiger et al — Nutrients (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030821
Park et al — Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00235.2020
Vishvkarma et al — Andrologia (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/and.13570
Florou et al — J Assist Reprod Genet (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-020-01906-3
Orlando et al — Aging (Albany NY) (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.18632/aging.103742
Hargreaves et al — Int J Mol Sci (2020). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21186695
Boukalova et al — Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis (2020). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2020.165759
Zeng Z et al. – Acta neurologica Scandinavica (2019). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30428123/
Okoli GN et al. – The Canadian journal of neurological sciences. Le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques (2019). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30764890/
Moretti DV – CNS neuroscience & therapeutics (2019). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30294976/
Dohlmann et al — J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2018-01185
Derosa et al — Drug Des Devel Ther (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2147/DDDT.S223153
Sawaddiruk et al — Free Radic Res (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/10715762.2019.1645955
Hajihashemi et al — Cephalalgia (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/0333102418821661
Arring et al — Cancer J (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1097/PPO.0000000000000396
Mehrabani et al — Complement Ther Med (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2019.01.022
Cook et al — Acta Neurol Scand (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/ane.13088
Negro et al — J Nutr Health Aging (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-019-1163-4
Izadi et al — Arch Med Res (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcmed.2019.04.004
Mazza et al — High Blood Press Cardiovasc Prev (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40292-019-00332-6
Zinovkin et al — Curr Mol Pharmacol (2019). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874467212666181127151059
Barcelos et al — Biology (Basel) (2019). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology8020028
Hernández-Camacho et al. — Clin Nutr (2018). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29221645/
Hernández-Camacho JD et al. - Frontiers in Physiology (2018). [Comprehensive Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29670542/
Zozina VI et al. - Antioxidants (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30544872/
Qu H et al. - BMC Cardiovascular Disorders (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30572855/
Ayers J et al. – Current atherosclerosis reports (2018). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29766349/
Vollmer DL et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30301271/
Hernandez-Camacho JD et al. — Front Physiol (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29459830/
Zozina VI et al. — Nutrients (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30200528/
Adams et al — Nutrients (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10030369
Qu et al — J Am Heart Assoc (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.118.009835
Mazza et al — Biomed Pharmacother (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2018.06.076
Braakhuis et al — Oxid Med Cell Longev (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/8575263
Zhang et al — J Clin Lipidol (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacl.2017.12.006
Tabrizi et al — High Blood Press Cardiovasc Prev (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40292-018-0247-2
Mazidi et al — Pharmacol Res (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2017.08.011
Tenório et al — Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2018.06.002
Cheng et al — Zhonghua Nan Ke Xue (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30157357/
Xu et al — Reprod Biol Endocrinol (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12958-018-0343-0
Mousavinejad et al — Psychiatry Res (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.03.061
Okudan et al — J Sports Med Phys Fitness (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0022-4707.17.07146-8
Emami et al — Br J Nutr (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114517003774
Emami et al — J Strength Cond Res (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001971
Zhai J et al. - Medicine (2017). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28353585/
Alehagen U et al. – PloS one (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28448590/
Zhu ZG et al. – Neurological sciences : official journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology (2017). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27830343/
Tóth et al — J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1515/jbcpp-2016-0149
Cicero et al — High Blood Press Cardiovasc Prev (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40292-016-0163-2
Rivara et al — Am J Kidney Dis (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2016.08.041
Kajarabille et al — Matern Child Nutr (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12300
Alehagen U et al. – PloS one (2016). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367855/
Sanoobar M et al. – Nutritional neuroscience (2016). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25603363/
Castro-Marrero J et al. – Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland) (2016). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26212172/
Negida A et al. – CNS & neurological disorders drug targets (2016). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26553164/
Ho et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2016). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007435.pub3
Sharifi et al — J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.12333
Gokbel et al — Am J Ther (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/MJT.0000000000000166
Shill et al — J Physiol (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1113/JP272491
Johansson P et al. – The journal of nutrition, health & aging (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26482687/
Alehagen U et al. – BioFactors (Oxford, England) (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26662217/
Alehagen U et al. – PloS one (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26375288/
Castro-Marrero J et al. – Antioxidants & redox signaling (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25386668/
Banach M et al. – Mayo Clinic proceedings (2015). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25440725/
Sanoobar M et al. — Neurol Sci (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26067220/
Barden et al — J Hypertens (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0000000000000621
Yoritaka et al — Parkinsonism Relat Disord (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2015.05.022
Peel et al — Complement Ther Med (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2015.09.002
Shimizu et al — Appl Physiol Nutr Metab (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2014-0556
Mortensen et al. — Q-SYMBIO, JACC Heart Fail (2014). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25282031/
Cordero MD et al. – Antioxidants & redox signaling (2014). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23886272/
Liu J et al. – CNS drugs (2014). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24242074/
Garrido-Maraver J et al. — Front Biosci (2014). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24389208/
Fotino AD et al. - American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2013). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23325634/
Alehagen U et al. – International journal of cardiology (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22626835/
Bogsrud MP et al. – Scandinavian cardiovascular journal : SCJ (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23301875/
Lesser GJ et al. – The journal of supportive oncology (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22682875/
Miyamae T et al. – Redox report : communications in free radical research (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23394493/
Alehagen U et al. — Int J Cardiol (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23200272/
Lafuente R et al. — J Assist Reprod Genet (2013). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23812730/
Liu J et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2012). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22592726/
Liu J et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2011). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22161420/
Sun-Edelstein C et al. – The Clinical journal of pain (2009). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19454881/
Rosenfeldt FL et al. - Journal of Cardiac Failure (2007). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17923356/
Marcoff L et al. – Journal of the American College of Cardiology (2007). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17560286/
Langsjoen PH & Langsjoen AM - BioFactors (1999). [Clinical Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10416055/
Ubiquinol vs ubiquinone — established (Established). [Pharmacokinetic].
The Benefits of Coconut Water
Coconut Water
Coconut water is a natural, refreshing liquid from young green coconuts that provides electrolytes including potassium, sodium, and magnesium. It is used as a natural flavouring and functional ingredient, contributing hydration support and natural electrolyte balance to our formulations.
Key Highlights
- Natural source of electrolytes (potassium, sodium, magnesium)
- Supports hydration and electrolyte balance
- Low calorie, naturally refreshing
- Traditional tropical beverage used for centuries
Biochemistry Timeline
The electrolytes and minerals in coconut water are absorbed rapidly in the small intestine, similarly to an oral rehydration solution. Potassium, the most abundant mineral in coconut water, helps regulate fluid balance and supports normal muscle and nerve function. Hydration benefits are felt almost immediately after consumption.
Summary
Coconut water provides natural electrolytes and hydration support. As a functional ingredient in our formulations, it contributes to taste and provides trace minerals including potassium, sodium, and magnesium.
FAQs
Why is coconut water included in a supplement?
Coconut water provides natural electrolytes, including potassium, magnesium, and sodium, in a balanced form. In powdered extract form, it contributes minerals that support hydration at a cellular level.
Is coconut water the same as coconut milk?
No. Coconut water is the clear liquid found inside young coconuts and is low in fat. Coconut milk is made from the pressed flesh of mature coconuts and is high in fat.
Research
Bell SK & Spriet LL — J Strength Cond Res (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41359932/
Kedia S et al. — Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol (2024). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38278200/
Nakorn SN et al. — Heliyon (2024). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39759299/
Erukainure OL & Chukwuma CI — Plants (2024). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38475510/
O'Brien BJ et al. — Sports (Basel) (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37755860/
Nuha K et al. — Int J Environ Res Public Health (2023). [Comparative trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37623203/
Dai Y et al. — PeerJ (2021). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33575128/
Patel RM et al. — Biomed Res Int (2018). [Clinical study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30515390/
Peart DJ et al. — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27768399/
Pérez-Idárraga A & Aragón-Vargas LF — Appl Physiol Nutr Metab (2014). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25017113/
Kalman DS et al. — J Int Soc Sports Nutr (2012). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22257640/
Nutritional profile — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
Cytokinins and growth factors — established (Established). [Biochemical].
13 studies — Coconut Water
Bell SK & Spriet LL — J Strength Cond Res (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41359932/
Kedia S et al. — Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol (2024). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38278200/
Nakorn SN et al. — Heliyon (2024). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39759299/
Erukainure OL & Chukwuma CI — Plants (2024). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38475510/
O'Brien BJ et al. — Sports (Basel) (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37755860/
Nuha K et al. — Int J Environ Res Public Health (2023). [Comparative trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37623203/
Dai Y et al. — PeerJ (2021). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33575128/
Patel RM et al. — Biomed Res Int (2018). [Clinical study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30515390/
Peart DJ et al. — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27768399/
Pérez-Idárraga A & Aragón-Vargas LF — Appl Physiol Nutr Metab (2014). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25017113/
Kalman DS et al. — J Int Soc Sports Nutr (2012). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22257640/
Nutritional profile — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
Cytokinins and growth factors — established (Established). [Biochemical].
The Benefits of Cod Liver Oil (Omega 3)
Cod Liver Oil (Omega 3)
Cod Liver Oil is a traditional Nordic supplement rich in omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA), vitamin A, and vitamin D. It has been a cornerstone of Scandinavian health practices for generations, providing three essential nutrients in one natural source. It supports heart health, brain function, immune defence, and bone health.
Key Highlights
- Three essential nutrients in one natural source: omega-3 (EPA+DHA), vitamin A, vitamin D
- Traditional Scandinavian health supplement with centuries of use
- Supports heart, brain, vision, immune, and bone health
- Particularly relevant for Nordic populations during winter months
- EFSA-approved claims for all three nutrient components
Biochemistry Timeline
Benefits of the omega-3, vitamin A, and vitamin D components develop over 4-12 weeks of consistent use. See individual ingredient pages for detailed timelines.
Summary
Cod Liver Oil is a traditional Nordic supplement providing omega-3 (EPA+DHA), vitamin A, and vitamin D in one natural source. It supports heart, brain, immune, bone, and vision health. Its centuries-long use in Scandinavia reflects traditional wisdom now validated by modern research.
FAQs
Is cod liver oil safe during pregnancy?
Cod liver oil contains vitamin A, which in excess can be harmful during pregnancy. If you are pregnant, consult your healthcare provider to ensure total vitamin A intake stays within safe limits (below 3,000 µg RAE/day).
Research
Holick MF — Adv Food Nutr Res (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38777417/
Brunvoll SH et al. — BMJ (2022). [RCT (quadruple-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36215222/
Miller WL & Imel EA — Horm Res Paediatr (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36446330/
Fatima F et al. — Cureus (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34277179/
Boucher BJ — Endocr Connect (2020). [Commentary]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33052876/
Yang S et al. — J Diabetes Res (2019). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31956660/
Conus N et al. — Curr Med Res Opin (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30106311/
Hill TR et al. — Subcell Biochem (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30779011/
Fujita Y et al. — Obes Res Clin Pract (2015). [Pilot RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25660172/
Mai XM et al. — Thorax (2013). [Prospective cohort (HUNT study)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22977130/
Beck-Nielsen SS — Dan Med J (2012). [Review (Danish context)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22293055/
Nordic heritage — established (Established). [Historical/cultural].
Traditional Nordic use (Established). [Historical/cultural].
13 studies — Cod Liver Oil (Omega 3)
Holick MF — Adv Food Nutr Res (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38777417/
Brunvoll SH et al. — BMJ (2022). [RCT (quadruple-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36215222/
Miller WL & Imel EA — Horm Res Paediatr (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36446330/
Fatima F et al. — Cureus (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34277179/
Boucher BJ — Endocr Connect (2020). [Commentary]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33052876/
Yang S et al. — J Diabetes Res (2019). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31956660/
Conus N et al. — Curr Med Res Opin (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30106311/
Hill TR et al. — Subcell Biochem (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30779011/
Fujita Y et al. — Obes Res Clin Pract (2015). [Pilot RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25660172/
Mai XM et al. — Thorax (2013). [Prospective cohort (HUNT study)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22977130/
Beck-Nielsen SS — Dan Med J (2012). [Review (Danish context)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22293055/
Nordic heritage — established (Established). [Historical/cultural].
Traditional Nordic use (Established). [Historical/cultural].
The Benefits of Collagen Type I
Collagen Type I
Type I Hydrolyzed Collagen
Type I Collagen is the most abundant collagen in the human body, forming the structural foundation of skin, bones, tendons, and connective tissues. It provides tensile strength and elasticity. Our hydrolysed Type I collagen peptides are broken down for optimal absorption and have been shown to support skin hydration and elasticity from within.
Key Highlights
- Most abundant collagen type in the human body (~80% of skin collagen)
- Hydrolysed for optimal absorption (2-5 kDa peptides)
- Supports skin hydration and elasticity
- Provides structural foundation for bones, tendons, and connective tissue
- Natural production declines ~1% per year from mid-20s
Biochemistry Timeline
Skin hydration improvements typically appear within 8-12 weeks. Nail and hair benefits may take 3-6 months. Consistent daily intake is important.
Summary
Type I Collagen is the most abundant structural protein in the body, supporting skin, bone, and connective tissue. Hydrolysed peptides are well-absorbed and may improve skin hydration and elasticity with consistent use over 8-12 weeks.
FAQs
Is this the same as marine collagen?
Marine collagen is predominantly Type I collagen derived from fish. Both provide the same type of collagen peptides. See our Marine Collagen page for detailed research and information.
Research
Tassara E et al. – Progress in molecular and subcellular biology (2026). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41733673/
Am J Med 2025 - collagen skin aging MA (2025). [Meta-analysis (23 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40324552/
Lee E et al. – Journal of microbiology and biotechnology (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40935395/
Bartoletti E et al. – Clinical, cosmetic and investigational dermatology (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41393269/
Mănescu AM et al. – Nutrients (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41305653/
Nilforoushzadeh MA et al. – Journal of cosmetic dermatology (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40960112/
Man Y et al. – Frontiers in pharmacology (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40727093/
Naumov et al — Ter Arkh (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2025.05.203272
Genç et al — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-024-08244-w
Genç et al — Jt Dis Relat Surg (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.52312/jdrs.2025.1965
Wang et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.70565
Aussieker et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000003788
Reynolds et al — Br J Nutr (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114525103851
Paulus et al — Clin Nutr (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2025.01.020
Xing et al — Food Funct (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4fo04240a
Kumar et al — J Am Nutr Assoc (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/27697061.2024.2438894
Yuenyongviwat et al — Sci Rep (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-17505-0
Alekseeva et al — Ter Arkh (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2025.01.203145
Reilly et al. — Dermatol Res Practice (2024). [RCT (double-blind, placebo)]. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8752787
Inacio PAQ et al. – Nutrients (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38892477/
Bischof K et al. – Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39060741/
Seong SH et al. – Journal of cosmetic dermatology (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37822045/
Rahman A et al. – Marine drugs (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38667776/
Shaik MI et al. – Journal of food science (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39126690/
Nulty CD et al. – American journal of physiology. Endocrinology and metabolism (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39259166/
Tran VVT et al. – Plastic and reconstructive surgery (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37400953/
Chen Q et al. – Advances in clinical and experimental medicine : official organ Wroclaw Medical University (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37248821/
Yang Y et al. – Frontiers in pharmacology (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39640483/
Sharma S et al. – Frontiers in endocrinology (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39257899/
Devasia et al — Cartilage (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/19476035231221211
Schulze et al — Int J Environ Res Public Health (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21060687
Vleminckx et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16458
Morakul et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16500
Kirmse et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000003519
Hilkens et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2023-0080
Alekseeva et al — Ter Arkh (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2024.05.202788
Pu et al. — meta-analysis (2023). [Meta-analysis (26 RCTs)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10180699/
Skin aging endpoints review (2023). [Narrative review]. General
Pu et al. — Nutrients (2023). [Systematic review & MA (26 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432180/
Jalili Z et al. – The British journal of nutrition (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35658958/
Laasri I et al. – International journal of biological macromolecules (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37806417/
Ustianowski Ł et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37047746/
Dumoulin et al. — Skin Pharmacol Physiol (2023). [RCT (double-blind)]. General
Liu T et al. – Journal of orthopaedic surgery and research (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37940992/
Chen R et al. – Archives of osteoporosis (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37169994/
Kviatkovsky et al — J Int Soc Sports Nutr (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/15502783.2023.2243252
Balshaw et al — Acta Physiol (Oxf) (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/apha.13903
Balshaw et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000003242
Santana et al — Wien Klin Wochenschr (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00508-022-02037-8
Chen et al — Nutr J (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-023-00837-w
Jerger et al — Eur J Sport Sci (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2023.2232758
Chen et al — Food Funct (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3fo02873a
Kuwaba et al — J Int Soc Sports Nutr (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/15502783.2023.2206392
Genovese et al — Int J Mol Sci (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241310996
Shiojima et al — J Am Nutr Assoc (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2021.2024466
Geahchan S et al. – Marine drugs (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35049916/
Lis DM et al. – International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34808597/
Noriega-González DC et al. – Nutrients (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35807843/
Su Y et al. – Annals of palliative medicine (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36367007/
DadeMatthews OO et al. – Complementary therapies in medicine (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35093509/
Jerger et al — Scand J Med Sci Sports (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.14164
Farì et al — Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871530321666210210153619
Kim et al — J Med Food (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2022.K.0097
Jacinto et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2021-0265
Lampropoulou-Adamidou et al — J Clin Densitom (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocd.2021.11.011
Schön et al — J Integr Complement Med (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1089/jicm.2021.0365
de Miranda et al. — Int J Dermatol (2021). [Systematic review & MA (19 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33742704/
Liu C – Medicine international (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36698868/
Subhan F et al. – Critical reviews in food science and nutrition (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32345036/
Michalak et al. — Int J Mol Sci (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34206767/
Fan L et al. – Medicine (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33546047/
Zdzieblik et al — Nutrients (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020523
Miyanaga et al — Skin Pharmacol Physiol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000513988
Lin et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.13500
Evans et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.13676
Wageh et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002641
Luo et al — J Orthop Traumatol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s10195-021-00572-0
Waluyo et al — J Rehabil Med (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2340/16501977-2835
Clark et al. — J Cosmet Dermatol (2020). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31846218/
Kjaer M et al. – The Journal of nutrition (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31897483/
Ocampo-Garza SS et al. – Dermatologic therapy (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32882083/
Oliviero et al — Reumatismo (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.4081/reumatismo.2020.1272
Žmitek et al — Nutrients (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030618
Oikawa et al — Am J Clin Nutr (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqz332
MacInnis et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2020-0009
Argyrou et al — J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32131366/
Cheng et al — Cartilage (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1177/1947603518798884
Skov et al. — J Cosmet Dermatol (2019). [Review]. General
Praet et al — Nutrients (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11010076
Alcock et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2019-0024
Skov et al — Nutrients (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051064
Maia Campos et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12893
Kirmse et al — Nutrients (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051154
Hao et al — Osteoarthritis Cartilage (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2018.10.009
Bricca et al — Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.23786
DePhillipo NN et al. – Orthopaedic journal of sports medicine (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30386805/
Czajka et al — Nutr Res (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2018.06.001
Dressler et al — J Sports Sci Med (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29769831/
Petersen Vitello Kalil et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12430
Huang et al — Osteoarthritis Cartilage (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2018.08.005
Ruff et al — Clin Interv Aging (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S153782
Tsuruta et al — Mol Med Rep (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2018.9396
Shaw G et al. – The American journal of clinical nutrition (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27852613/
Heaton LE et al. – Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28702900/
Jakobsen JR et al. – Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27781307/
Pullar JM et al. - Nutrients (2017). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28805671/
Zdzieblik et al — Appl Physiol Nutr Metab (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2016-0390
Taipale et al — BMC Genet (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12863-017-0585-4
Lugo et al — Nutr J (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-016-0130-8
Chmielewski et al — Am J Sports Med (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546515620583
Mcmurdo et al — Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.22724
Karsdal et al — Osteoarthritis Cartilage (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2014.12.019
Kanzaki et al — Clin Interv Aging (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S93077
Proksch et al. — Skin Pharmacol Physiol (2014). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23949208/
Choi SY et al. – Journal of cosmetic and laser therapy : official publication of the European Society for Laser Dermatology (2014). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24131075/
Harston A et al. – Knee surgery, sports traumatology, arthroscopy : official journal of the ESSKA (2012). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21695465/
Schagen et al. — Dermato-Endocrinol (2012). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23785655/
Verdier-Sévrain S – Climacteric : the journal of the International Menopause Society (2007). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17653955/
Verdier-Sévrain S et al. – Experimental dermatology (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16433679/
Inoue et al. — J Agric Food Chem (2005). [Controlled study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16076145/
Raine-Fenning NJ et al. – American journal of clinical dermatology (2003). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12762829/
Hemilä H – The British journal of nutrition (1992). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1547201/
Kurban RS et al. – The Journal of dermatologic surgery and oncology (1990). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2229632/
Collagen peptide absorption — bioavailability (Established). [Mechanistic]. General
Combined beauty ingredient evidence (Multiple years). [Multiple ingredient evidence]. General
125 studies — Collagen Type I
Tassara E et al. – Progress in molecular and subcellular biology (2026). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41733673/
Am J Med 2025 - collagen skin aging MA (2025). [Meta-analysis (23 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40324552/
Lee E et al. – Journal of microbiology and biotechnology (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40935395/
Bartoletti E et al. – Clinical, cosmetic and investigational dermatology (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41393269/
Mănescu AM et al. – Nutrients (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41305653/
Nilforoushzadeh MA et al. – Journal of cosmetic dermatology (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40960112/
Man Y et al. – Frontiers in pharmacology (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40727093/
Naumov et al — Ter Arkh (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2025.05.203272
Genç et al — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-024-08244-w
Genç et al — Jt Dis Relat Surg (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.52312/jdrs.2025.1965
Wang et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.70565
Aussieker et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000003788
Reynolds et al — Br J Nutr (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114525103851
Paulus et al — Clin Nutr (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2025.01.020
Xing et al — Food Funct (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4fo04240a
Kumar et al — J Am Nutr Assoc (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/27697061.2024.2438894
Yuenyongviwat et al — Sci Rep (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-17505-0
Alekseeva et al — Ter Arkh (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2025.01.203145
Reilly et al. — Dermatol Res Practice (2024). [RCT (double-blind, placebo)]. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8752787
Inacio PAQ et al. – Nutrients (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38892477/
Bischof K et al. – Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39060741/
Seong SH et al. – Journal of cosmetic dermatology (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37822045/
Rahman A et al. – Marine drugs (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38667776/
Shaik MI et al. – Journal of food science (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39126690/
Nulty CD et al. – American journal of physiology. Endocrinology and metabolism (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39259166/
Tran VVT et al. – Plastic and reconstructive surgery (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37400953/
Chen Q et al. – Advances in clinical and experimental medicine : official organ Wroclaw Medical University (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37248821/
Yang Y et al. – Frontiers in pharmacology (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39640483/
Sharma S et al. – Frontiers in endocrinology (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39257899/
Devasia et al — Cartilage (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/19476035231221211
Schulze et al — Int J Environ Res Public Health (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21060687
Vleminckx et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16458
Morakul et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16500
Kirmse et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000003519
Hilkens et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2023-0080
Alekseeva et al — Ter Arkh (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2024.05.202788
Pu et al. — meta-analysis (2023). [Meta-analysis (26 RCTs)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10180699/
Skin aging endpoints review (2023). [Narrative review]. General
Pu et al. — Nutrients (2023). [Systematic review & MA (26 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432180/
Jalili Z et al. – The British journal of nutrition (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35658958/
Laasri I et al. – International journal of biological macromolecules (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37806417/
Ustianowski Ł et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37047746/
Dumoulin et al. — Skin Pharmacol Physiol (2023). [RCT (double-blind)]. General
Liu T et al. – Journal of orthopaedic surgery and research (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37940992/
Chen R et al. – Archives of osteoporosis (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37169994/
Kviatkovsky et al — J Int Soc Sports Nutr (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/15502783.2023.2243252
Balshaw et al — Acta Physiol (Oxf) (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/apha.13903
Balshaw et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000003242
Santana et al — Wien Klin Wochenschr (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00508-022-02037-8
Chen et al — Nutr J (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-023-00837-w
Jerger et al — Eur J Sport Sci (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2023.2232758
Chen et al — Food Funct (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3fo02873a
Kuwaba et al — J Int Soc Sports Nutr (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/15502783.2023.2206392
Genovese et al — Int J Mol Sci (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241310996
Shiojima et al — J Am Nutr Assoc (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2021.2024466
Geahchan S et al. – Marine drugs (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35049916/
Lis DM et al. – International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34808597/
Noriega-González DC et al. – Nutrients (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35807843/
Su Y et al. – Annals of palliative medicine (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36367007/
DadeMatthews OO et al. – Complementary therapies in medicine (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35093509/
Jerger et al — Scand J Med Sci Sports (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.14164
Farì et al — Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871530321666210210153619
Kim et al — J Med Food (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2022.K.0097
Jacinto et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2021-0265
Lampropoulou-Adamidou et al — J Clin Densitom (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocd.2021.11.011
Schön et al — J Integr Complement Med (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1089/jicm.2021.0365
de Miranda et al. — Int J Dermatol (2021). [Systematic review & MA (19 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33742704/
Liu C – Medicine international (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36698868/
Subhan F et al. – Critical reviews in food science and nutrition (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32345036/
Michalak et al. — Int J Mol Sci (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34206767/
Fan L et al. – Medicine (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33546047/
Zdzieblik et al — Nutrients (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020523
Miyanaga et al — Skin Pharmacol Physiol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000513988
Lin et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.13500
Evans et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.13676
Wageh et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002641
Luo et al — J Orthop Traumatol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s10195-021-00572-0
Waluyo et al — J Rehabil Med (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2340/16501977-2835
Clark et al. — J Cosmet Dermatol (2020). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31846218/
Kjaer M et al. – The Journal of nutrition (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31897483/
Ocampo-Garza SS et al. – Dermatologic therapy (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32882083/
Oliviero et al — Reumatismo (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.4081/reumatismo.2020.1272
Žmitek et al — Nutrients (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030618
Oikawa et al — Am J Clin Nutr (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqz332
MacInnis et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2020-0009
Argyrou et al — J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32131366/
Cheng et al — Cartilage (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1177/1947603518798884
Skov et al. — J Cosmet Dermatol (2019). [Review]. General
Praet et al — Nutrients (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11010076
Alcock et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2019-0024
Skov et al — Nutrients (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051064
Maia Campos et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12893
Kirmse et al — Nutrients (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051154
Hao et al — Osteoarthritis Cartilage (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2018.10.009
Bricca et al — Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.23786
DePhillipo NN et al. – Orthopaedic journal of sports medicine (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30386805/
Czajka et al — Nutr Res (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2018.06.001
Dressler et al — J Sports Sci Med (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29769831/
Petersen Vitello Kalil et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12430
Huang et al — Osteoarthritis Cartilage (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2018.08.005
Ruff et al — Clin Interv Aging (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S153782
Tsuruta et al — Mol Med Rep (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2018.9396
Shaw G et al. – The American journal of clinical nutrition (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27852613/
Heaton LE et al. – Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28702900/
Jakobsen JR et al. – Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27781307/
Pullar JM et al. - Nutrients (2017). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28805671/
Zdzieblik et al — Appl Physiol Nutr Metab (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2016-0390
Taipale et al — BMC Genet (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12863-017-0585-4
Lugo et al — Nutr J (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-016-0130-8
Chmielewski et al — Am J Sports Med (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546515620583
Mcmurdo et al — Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.22724
Karsdal et al — Osteoarthritis Cartilage (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2014.12.019
Kanzaki et al — Clin Interv Aging (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S93077
Proksch et al. — Skin Pharmacol Physiol (2014). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23949208/
Choi SY et al. – Journal of cosmetic and laser therapy : official publication of the European Society for Laser Dermatology (2014). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24131075/
Harston A et al. – Knee surgery, sports traumatology, arthroscopy : official journal of the ESSKA (2012). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21695465/
Schagen et al. — Dermato-Endocrinol (2012). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23785655/
Verdier-Sévrain S – Climacteric : the journal of the International Menopause Society (2007). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17653955/
Verdier-Sévrain S et al. – Experimental dermatology (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16433679/
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Collagen peptide absorption — bioavailability (Established). [Mechanistic]. General
Combined beauty ingredient evidence (Multiple years). [Multiple ingredient evidence]. General
The Benefits of Copper (Glycinate)
Copper (Glycinate)
Chelated form
Copper is an essential trace mineral involved in energy production, connective tissue formation, iron metabolism, and nervous system function. It also contributes to normal hair and skin pigmentation. The body needs copper in very small amounts, but its roles are critical, particularly in supporting iron transport, immune function, and antioxidant defence.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to normal iron transport in the body (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal hair and skin pigmentation (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to maintenance of normal connective tissues (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal energy-yielding metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal function of the immune system (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to protection of cells from oxidative stress (EFSA approved)
Biochemistry Timeline
Copper supplements are well-absorbed, particularly in glycinate form. Blood levels respond within 2 to 4 weeks. Copper has a narrow optimal range (both deficiency and excess are harmful), so supplementation should be at appropriate doses, typically 1-2 mg/day.
Energy Production
Copper is a component of cytochrome c oxidase, the final enzyme in the mitochondrial electron transport chain. This makes copper directly involved in the last step of cellular energy (ATP) production. EFSA recognises that copper contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism.
Immune and Antioxidant Function
Copper supports immune function and acts as a cofactor for superoxide dismutase (SOD), one of the body's most important antioxidant enzymes. SOD neutralises superoxide radicals, protecting cells from oxidative damage. EFSA recognises that copper contributes to normal immune function and protection of cells from oxidative stress.
Summary
Copper is an essential trace mineral with critical roles in iron transport, energy production, connective tissue maintenance, hair/skin pigmentation, immune function, and antioxidant defence. We use copper glycinate for optimal absorption. Copper works alongside iron, zinc, and other trace minerals to support overall health, with EFSA recognising multiple health claims.
FAQs
How much copper do I need?
The recommended daily intake for adults is 1 mg. The European upper limit is 5 mg per day. Most supplements provide 1-2 mg per day.
Why is copper paired with zinc?
High-dose zinc supplementation can reduce copper absorption over time. When taking zinc supplements long-term, including a small amount of copper helps maintain balance.
Is copper safe during pregnancy?
Copper is essential during pregnancy. Recommended intake is slightly higher. Follow your healthcare provider's guidance.
Research
Ebadi et al — Neuropsychobiology (2026). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000548323
NIH ODS — Copper Fact Sheet (2025). [Government reference]. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Copper-HealthProfessional/
Hill B et al. – British journal of nursing (Mark Allen Publishing) (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39969834/
Mao L et al. – Chemical Society reviews (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40433941/
Chen et al — Signal Transduct Target Ther (2025). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-024-02071-0
EASL-ERN Clinical Practice Guidelines on Wilson's disease. (2025). [Practice Guideline]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2024.11.007
Mariño et al — Semin Liver Dis (2025). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-2460-8999
Squitti et al — Biomolecules (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom15091268
Stiles LI et al. – Clinical and experimental medicine (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38367035/
Liu WQ et al. – Immunological reviews (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37715546/
Podgórska A et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38612631/
Diao W et al. – Wound repair and regeneration : official publication of the Wound Healing Society [and] the European Tissue Repair Society (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37822053/
Teschke R et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38731973/
Fujiwara T – [Rinsho ketsueki] The Japanese journal of clinical hematology (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39358290/
Tang et al — Nat Rev Clin Oncol (2024). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41571-024-00876-0
Schoofs et al — Molecules (2024). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29133130
Giovannini et al — J Nutr Health Aging (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnha.2024.100256
Scolari Grotto et al — Biometals (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10534-023-00530-9
Lopes SO et al. – Nutrients (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36904074/
Helman SL et al. – Biometals : an international journal on the role of metal ions in biology, biochemistry, and medicine (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35167013/
Gogna S et al. – Journal of the American Nutrition Association (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35916491/
Xue et al — Autophagy (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2023.2200554
Lucena-Valera et al — Med Clin (Barc) (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medcli.2022.12.016
Xiong et al — Cell Death Differ (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41418-023-01125-0
Baj et al — Int J Mol Sci (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241914959
Kiani AK et al. – Journal of preventive medicine and hygiene (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36479498/
Sandoval C et al. – Pharmaceutics (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36145586/
Salvo J et al. – Burns & trauma (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35071652/
Ge et al — Nat Rev Cancer (2022). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41568-021-00417-2
Chanpong et al — Saudi J Gastroenterol (2022). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.4103/sjg.sjg_501_21
Jeng et al — Nutrients (2022). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14224918
Karimi et al — Brain Imaging Behav (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-022-00733-7
Piroddi et al. — Nutrients (2021). [Narrative review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34210051/
Cucci LM et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34639045/
Lei et al — J Biol Chem (2021). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.REV120.008207
Shribman et al — J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry (2021). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2021-326123
Tsang et al — Adv Nutr (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmab065
Gombart AF et al. – Nutrients (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31963293/
Fujiwara T – [Rinsho ketsueki] The Japanese journal of clinical hematology (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32759564/
Knezevic et al — Nutrients (2020). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061769
Chen et al — Pflugers Arch (2020). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00424-020-02412-2
Gwathmey et al — Muscle Nerve (2020). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1002/mus.26783
Chochia et al — Georgian Med News (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32672700/
Lu et al — J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2020-323497
Lopuszanska et al — Cogn Behav Neurol (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNN.0000000000000235
Adani et al — Neuroepidemiology (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000502357
Scholefield et al — Ageing Res Rev (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2020.101152
Louzada et al — Nutr Neurosci (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/1028415X.2018.1477349
Altarelli et al — Nutr Clin Pract (2019). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1002/ncp.10328
Saleem et al — J Am Acad Dermatol (2019). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2018.07.070
Myint ZW et al. – Annals of hematology (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29959467/
Bulcke et al — Adv Neurobiol (2017). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60189-2_16
Daughety et al — Med Clin North Am (2017). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2016.09.011
Bost et al. — J Trace Elements Med Biol (review) (2016). [Narrative review]. PubMed Review
Bost M et al. - Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology (2016). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27473827/
Shah et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2016). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD010697.pub2
Ruxton et al — J Hum Nutr Diet (2016). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jhn.12335
EFSA Panel — NDA Opinion (2015). [Regulatory / Scientific Opinion]. EFSA Register
EFSA NDA Panel — EFSA Journal (2015). [Regulatory / Scientific Opinion]. Regulatory / Foundational
Pickart L et al. – BioMed research international (2015). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26236730/
Bandmann et al — Lancet Neurol (2015). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70190-5
Chew et al — JAMA (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.9677
Gaetke LM et al. - Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hepatology (2014). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25755573/
Prohaska — Adv Nutr (2011). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22332098/
Collins et al. — Br J Nutr (2010). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20500926/
Collins JF et al. - Advances in Nutrition (2010). [Expert Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22043417/
Stern BR et al. - Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health (2007). [Risk Assessment]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17454560/
Harvey & Baker — Br J Nutr (2005). [RCT (crossover)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16115357/
Harvey LJ et al. - American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2005). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15883444/
Turnlund et al. — Am J Clin Nutr (2004). [Controlled study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15113722/
Black RE – The British journal of nutrition (2001). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11509110/
Albrektsson T et al. – European spine journal : official publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society (2001). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11716023/
Olivares M & Uauy R - American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (1996). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8610072/
May A et al. – Bailliere's clinical haematology (1994). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7881157/
Oski FA – Seminars in perinatology (1979). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/395648/
75 studies — Copper (Glycinate)
Ebadi et al — Neuropsychobiology (2026). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000548323
NIH ODS — Copper Fact Sheet (2025). [Government reference]. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Copper-HealthProfessional/
Hill B et al. – British journal of nursing (Mark Allen Publishing) (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39969834/
Mao L et al. – Chemical Society reviews (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40433941/
Chen et al — Signal Transduct Target Ther (2025). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-024-02071-0
EASL-ERN Clinical Practice Guidelines on Wilson's disease. (2025). [Practice Guideline]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2024.11.007
Mariño et al — Semin Liver Dis (2025). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-2460-8999
Squitti et al — Biomolecules (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom15091268
Stiles LI et al. – Clinical and experimental medicine (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38367035/
Liu WQ et al. – Immunological reviews (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37715546/
Podgórska A et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38612631/
Diao W et al. – Wound repair and regeneration : official publication of the Wound Healing Society [and] the European Tissue Repair Society (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37822053/
Teschke R et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38731973/
Fujiwara T – [Rinsho ketsueki] The Japanese journal of clinical hematology (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39358290/
Tang et al — Nat Rev Clin Oncol (2024). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41571-024-00876-0
Schoofs et al — Molecules (2024). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29133130
Giovannini et al — J Nutr Health Aging (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnha.2024.100256
Scolari Grotto et al — Biometals (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10534-023-00530-9
Lopes SO et al. – Nutrients (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36904074/
Helman SL et al. – Biometals : an international journal on the role of metal ions in biology, biochemistry, and medicine (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35167013/
Gogna S et al. – Journal of the American Nutrition Association (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35916491/
Xue et al — Autophagy (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2023.2200554
Lucena-Valera et al — Med Clin (Barc) (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medcli.2022.12.016
Xiong et al — Cell Death Differ (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41418-023-01125-0
Baj et al — Int J Mol Sci (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241914959
Kiani AK et al. – Journal of preventive medicine and hygiene (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36479498/
Sandoval C et al. – Pharmaceutics (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36145586/
Salvo J et al. – Burns & trauma (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35071652/
Ge et al — Nat Rev Cancer (2022). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41568-021-00417-2
Chanpong et al — Saudi J Gastroenterol (2022). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.4103/sjg.sjg_501_21
Jeng et al — Nutrients (2022). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14224918
Karimi et al — Brain Imaging Behav (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-022-00733-7
Piroddi et al. — Nutrients (2021). [Narrative review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34210051/
Cucci LM et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34639045/
Lei et al — J Biol Chem (2021). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.REV120.008207
Shribman et al — J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry (2021). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2021-326123
Tsang et al — Adv Nutr (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmab065
Gombart AF et al. – Nutrients (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31963293/
Fujiwara T – [Rinsho ketsueki] The Japanese journal of clinical hematology (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32759564/
Knezevic et al — Nutrients (2020). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061769
Chen et al — Pflugers Arch (2020). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00424-020-02412-2
Gwathmey et al — Muscle Nerve (2020). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1002/mus.26783
Chochia et al — Georgian Med News (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32672700/
Lu et al — J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2020-323497
Lopuszanska et al — Cogn Behav Neurol (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNN.0000000000000235
Adani et al — Neuroepidemiology (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000502357
Scholefield et al — Ageing Res Rev (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2020.101152
Louzada et al — Nutr Neurosci (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/1028415X.2018.1477349
Altarelli et al — Nutr Clin Pract (2019). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1002/ncp.10328
Saleem et al — J Am Acad Dermatol (2019). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2018.07.070
Myint ZW et al. – Annals of hematology (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29959467/
Bulcke et al — Adv Neurobiol (2017). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60189-2_16
Daughety et al — Med Clin North Am (2017). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2016.09.011
Bost et al. — J Trace Elements Med Biol (review) (2016). [Narrative review]. PubMed Review
Bost M et al. - Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology (2016). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27473827/
Shah et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2016). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD010697.pub2
Ruxton et al — J Hum Nutr Diet (2016). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jhn.12335
EFSA Panel — NDA Opinion (2015). [Regulatory / Scientific Opinion]. EFSA Register
EFSA NDA Panel — EFSA Journal (2015). [Regulatory / Scientific Opinion]. Regulatory / Foundational
Pickart L et al. – BioMed research international (2015). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26236730/
Bandmann et al — Lancet Neurol (2015). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70190-5
Chew et al — JAMA (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.9677
Gaetke LM et al. - Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hepatology (2014). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25755573/
Prohaska — Adv Nutr (2011). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22332098/
Collins et al. — Br J Nutr (2010). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20500926/
Collins JF et al. - Advances in Nutrition (2010). [Expert Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22043417/
Stern BR et al. - Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health (2007). [Risk Assessment]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17454560/
Harvey & Baker — Br J Nutr (2005). [RCT (crossover)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16115357/
Harvey LJ et al. - American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2005). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15883444/
Turnlund et al. — Am J Clin Nutr (2004). [Controlled study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15113722/
Black RE – The British journal of nutrition (2001). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11509110/
Albrektsson T et al. – European spine journal : official publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society (2001). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11716023/
Olivares M & Uauy R - American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (1996). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8610072/
May A et al. – Bailliere's clinical haematology (1994). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7881157/
Oski FA – Seminars in perinatology (1979). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/395648/
The Benefits of Cucumber
Cucumber
Cucumber is a hydrating, low-calorie ingredient rich in water content (approximately 96% water), silica, and vitamin K. It provides gentle hydration support and trace minerals, and has been traditionally used for skin health both internally and externally.
Key Highlights
- Approximately 96% water content for hydration
- Contains natural silica for skin and connective tissue
- Source of vitamin K and trace minerals
- Traditionally valued for skin health and cooling properties
Biochemistry Timeline
Cucumber extract provides silica, vitamin K, and antioxidant compounds including flavonoids and lignans. These nutrients are absorbed through normal digestive processes. Silica, in particular, supports connective tissue health and may contribute to skin and nail integrity over time with consistent intake.
Summary
Cucumber provides natural hydration, silica, and vitamin K. Its high water content and trace mineral profile make it a gentle, refreshing functional ingredient.
FAQs
What nutrients does cucumber provide?
Beyond hydration, cucumber is a source of silica, vitamin K, and several antioxidant flavonoids. In concentrated extract form, these nutrients are delivered in meaningful amounts.
How does cucumber support skin health?
Cucumber contains silica, which contributes to connective tissue health, and antioxidant compounds that may help protect skin cells from oxidative stress.
Research
Hausenblas HA et al. — Health Sci Rep (2025). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40636535/
Amani T et al. — Cureus (2024). [In vitro study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38327926/
Li C et al. — Int J Biol Macromol (2024). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38336313/
Qing Z et al. — Phytochemistry (2022). [Phytochemical analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35182783/
Naureen Z et al. — J Prev Med Hyg (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36479487/
Cucurbitacin bioactivity — review (2022). [Phytochemical review].
Nash RJ et al. — ACS Omega (2020). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32656449/
Bernardini C et al. — BMC Complement Altern Med (2018). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29941006/
Nutritional profile — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
Silica content — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
Hydration properties — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
Traditional dermatological use — established (Established). [Historical/ethnobotanical].
12 studies — Cucumber
Hausenblas HA et al. — Health Sci Rep (2025). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40636535/
Amani T et al. — Cureus (2024). [In vitro study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38327926/
Li C et al. — Int J Biol Macromol (2024). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38336313/
Qing Z et al. — Phytochemistry (2022). [Phytochemical analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35182783/
Naureen Z et al. — J Prev Med Hyg (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36479487/
Cucurbitacin bioactivity — review (2022). [Phytochemical review].
Nash RJ et al. — ACS Omega (2020). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32656449/
Bernardini C et al. — BMC Complement Altern Med (2018). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29941006/
Nutritional profile — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
Silica content — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
Hydration properties — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
Traditional dermatological use — established (Established). [Historical/ethnobotanical].
The Benefits of Biotin
Biotin
Bioactive Form
Biotin (Vitamin B7) is a water-soluble B vitamin that supports the maintenance of normal hair, skin, and mucous membranes. It plays an important role in macronutrient metabolism, helping the body convert fats, carbohydrates, and proteins into energy. While biotin deficiency is relatively rare in the general population, certain groups may benefit from supplementation.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to the maintenance of normal hair (EFSA approved)
- Supports the maintenance of normal skin (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to the maintenance of normal mucous membranes (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal energy-yielding metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal macronutrient metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system (EFSA approved)
- Most beneficial for those with deficiency or at-risk groups
Biochemistry Timeline
Biotin is water-soluble, meaning the body does not store it in large amounts and regular intake is needed. Improvements in nail strength may take 3 to 6 months of consistent supplementation (research on brittle nails used 2,500-3,000 µg/day for several months; Patel et al., 2017).
For hair-related concerns, visible improvements also require patience, as the hair growth cycle means new growth takes several months to become noticeable. If biotin deficiency is confirmed, improvements in skin and energy may be noticed more quickly, within 4 to 8 weeks.
Nail Health
Biotin supplementation has shown the most consistent evidence for brittle nail syndrome. Case reports and small studies have demonstrated improvement in nail thickness and reduced splitting at doses of 2,500-3,000 µg/day (Patel et al., 2017).
While the evidence base is limited to smaller studies, the results have been consistently positive for those with brittle or splitting nails. Biotin supports keratin infrastructure, the structural protein that forms the foundation of both nails and hair.
Nervous System Function
Biotin contributes to the normal functioning of the nervous system, an EFSA-approved health claim. It is involved in the synthesis of myelin, the protective sheath around nerve fibres, and in neurotransmitter activity.
Biotin deficiency has been associated with neurological symptoms including depression, lethargy, and numbness in the extremities (Valizadeh & Valizadeh, 2011, documented neuropsychiatric symptoms as an early manifestation of B12 deficiency, with similar mechanisms relevant to biotin). Ensuring adequate biotin intake supports normal nervous system function as part of overall B vitamin sufficiency.
Summary
Biotin (Vitamin B7) supports the maintenance of normal hair, skin, mucous membranes, and nervous system function. It plays a key role in macronutrient metabolism, helping the body convert food into energy. While biotin deficiency is relatively rare, it is more common among pregnant women, those taking certain medications, and women experiencing hair loss.
We believe in being honest about the evidence: biotin supplementation is most beneficial for those with a deficiency or specific conditions like brittle nails. For those with adequate levels, other nutrients may be more impactful for hair and skin health. As part of a comprehensive supplement plan, biotin supports the body's metabolic and structural needs.
FAQs
Will biotin make my hair grow faster?
If you have a biotin deficiency, supplementation may improve hair health. However, research does not support biotin for hair growth in those with adequate levels. Hair concerns are often multifactorial, involving iron, zinc, vitamin D, and hormonal health. A comprehensive approach is more effective than relying on biotin alone.
How much biotin should I take?
The adequate intake for adults is 30-40 µg per day. Supplements commonly provide much higher doses (1,000-10,000 µg). For brittle nails, research has used 2,500-3,000 µg per day. There is no established upper limit, as toxicity is extremely rare.
Can biotin affect blood test results?
Yes, high-dose biotin supplementation can interfere with certain laboratory tests, including thyroid function tests and troponin (a heart marker). If you take high-dose biotin, inform your healthcare provider before any blood tests.
Are there any side effects?
Biotin is generally well-tolerated with no established upper limit. Side effects are extremely rare. Some people report mild skin breakouts when starting high-dose biotin, though this is not consistently documented in research.
Is biotin safe during pregnancy?
Yes, biotin is considered safe during pregnancy. In fact, biotin requirements may increase during pregnancy, and mild deficiency is relatively common in pregnant women. Consult your healthcare provider for appropriate dosage guidance.
Research
Gaffney PJ et al. – Multiple sclerosis and related disorders (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41124782/
Chai Y et al. – Asia Pacific journal of clinical nutrition (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39828265/
Zhu Y et al. – European journal of nutrition (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41117955/
Cao AA et al. – Neuro-ophthalmology (Aeolus Press) (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40190376/
Zaraa I et al. – Skin appendage disorders (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40176998/
Yelich et al. — PRISMA review (2024). [Systematic review (PRISMA)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11324195/
Ma G et al. – Microbiology spectrum (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38687069/
Gan Y et al. – Acta epileptologica (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40217438/
Karachaliou CE et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38928282/
Lagzi N et al. – International journal of psychiatry in medicine (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37256965/
Takahashi et al — Pediatr Int (2023). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/ped.15359
Berger MM et al. – Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland) (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35365361/
Dasgupta A – Advances in clinical chemistry (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35953126/
Zhang Y et al. – Frontiers in nutrition (2022). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36386951/
Samadi et al — Dermatol Ther (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/dth.15695
Espiritu AI et al. – Multiple sclerosis and related disorders (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34332461/
Saxena et al — Sci Rep (2021). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-86454-1
Chessa MA et al. – Dermatology and therapy (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31749091/
Cree BAC et al. – The Lancet. Neurology (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33222767/
Laing et al — J Med Food (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2019.0197
Almohanna et al. — Dermatol Ther (2019). [Comprehensive review].
Piraccini BM et al. – Giornale italiano di dermatologia e venereologia : organo ufficiale, Societa italiana di dermatologia e sifilografia (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31638351/
Chiavetta A et al. – Dermatologic therapy (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31344296/
Lipner — Cutis (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30372723/
Lipner SR et al. – The Journal of dermatological treatment (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29057689/
Tourbah A et al. – CNS drugs (2018). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29808469/
Lipner SR — J Am Acad Dermatol (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29709619/
Williams et al — Clin Biochem (2018). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2018.01.018
Patel et al. — Skin Appendage Disord (2017). [Systematic review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5582478/
Patel et al. — Skin Appendage Disord (2017). [Systematic review (18 cases)].
Patel et al. — Skin Appendage Disord (2017). [Systematic review (18 cases)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28879195/
Li et al. — FDA Safety Communication (2017). [Regulatory]. General
Li D et al. - FDA Safety Communication (2017). [Safety Alert]. Safety
Mock DM - Journal of Nutrition (2017). [Expert Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28053236/
Mock DM — J Nutr (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28490668/
Biotin lab interference — FDA warning (2017). [Safety notice]. https://www.fda.gov/safety/medwatch-safety-alerts-human-medical-products/biotin-may-interfere-lab-tests-fda-safety-communication
McFadden et al — Vet Dermatol (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/vde.12466
Sun et al — J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.12465
Elston MS et al. – The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2016). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27362288/
Tourbah A et al. – Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills, Basingstoke, England) (2016). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27589059/
Sedel F et al. — Mult Scler Relat Disord (2016). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27063613/
Sedel et al. — Mult Scler Relat Disord (2015). [Pilot study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25432947/
Sedel F et al. - Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders (2015). [Phase III RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26590117/
EFSA NDA Panel — EFSA Journal (2014). [Regulatory / Scientific Opinion]. Regulatory / Foundational
Lapik IA et al. – Voprosy pitaniia (2014). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25300112/
Ogawa et al — Gan To Kagaku Ryoho (2014). [Clinical Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24743373/
Abd El-Wahab et al — Poult Sci (2013). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2013-03054
Zhu et al — Br Poult Sci (2012). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071668.2012.722607
Youssef et al — J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) (2012). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0396.2010.01115.x
Li J & Wieringa FT — Asia Pac J Clin Nutr (2011). [Review].
Colombo et al. — Nutrients (2010). [Review]. General
Zempleni J et al. — Annu Rev Nutr (2009). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19400697/
Albarracin CA et al. – Diabetes/metabolism research and reviews (2008). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17506119/
Scheinfeld N et al. – Journal of drugs in dermatology : JDD (2007). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17763607/
Albarracin C et al. – Journal of the cardiometabolic syndrome (2007). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684468/
Geohas J et al. – The American journal of the medical sciences (2007). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17496732/
Bolander FF – Current opinion in investigational drugs (London, England : 2000) (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17086936/
Singer GM et al. – Diabetes technology & therapeutics (2006). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17109595/
Revilla-Monsalve C et al. – Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie (2006). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16677798/
Scher RK et al. – Dermatology nursing (2003). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12656000/
Biotin keratin mechanism — established (Established). [Established science].
Biotin pregnancy needs — established (Established). [Clinical observation].
Biotin for hair loss: systematic evidence assessment. [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26327679/
Biotin and biotinidase deficiency: clinical review. [Review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5129763/
Role of biotin in gene expression and chromatin structure. [Review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3509882/
Biotin deficiency and neurological dysfunction. [Review]. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2015/841570
Biotin interference with laboratory thyroid function tests. [Review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5996940/
Biotin status and supplementation in pregnancy. [Review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3500876/
Biotin supplementation effects on glycemic control. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31022908/
Biotin and its role in metabolic processes and health. [Review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5852775/
Biotin supplementation review for hair and nail disorders. [Review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4772032/
71 studies — Biotin
Gaffney PJ et al. – Multiple sclerosis and related disorders (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41124782/
Chai Y et al. – Asia Pacific journal of clinical nutrition (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39828265/
Zhu Y et al. – European journal of nutrition (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41117955/
Cao AA et al. – Neuro-ophthalmology (Aeolus Press) (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40190376/
Zaraa I et al. – Skin appendage disorders (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40176998/
Yelich et al. — PRISMA review (2024). [Systematic review (PRISMA)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11324195/
Ma G et al. – Microbiology spectrum (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38687069/
Gan Y et al. – Acta epileptologica (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40217438/
Karachaliou CE et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38928282/
Lagzi N et al. – International journal of psychiatry in medicine (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37256965/
Takahashi et al — Pediatr Int (2023). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/ped.15359
Berger MM et al. – Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland) (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35365361/
Dasgupta A – Advances in clinical chemistry (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35953126/
Zhang Y et al. – Frontiers in nutrition (2022). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36386951/
Samadi et al — Dermatol Ther (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/dth.15695
Espiritu AI et al. – Multiple sclerosis and related disorders (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34332461/
Saxena et al — Sci Rep (2021). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-86454-1
Chessa MA et al. – Dermatology and therapy (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31749091/
Cree BAC et al. – The Lancet. Neurology (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33222767/
Laing et al — J Med Food (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2019.0197
Almohanna et al. — Dermatol Ther (2019). [Comprehensive review].
Piraccini BM et al. – Giornale italiano di dermatologia e venereologia : organo ufficiale, Societa italiana di dermatologia e sifilografia (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31638351/
Chiavetta A et al. – Dermatologic therapy (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31344296/
Lipner — Cutis (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30372723/
Lipner SR et al. – The Journal of dermatological treatment (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29057689/
Tourbah A et al. – CNS drugs (2018). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29808469/
Lipner SR — J Am Acad Dermatol (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29709619/
Williams et al — Clin Biochem (2018). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2018.01.018
Patel et al. — Skin Appendage Disord (2017). [Systematic review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5582478/
Patel et al. — Skin Appendage Disord (2017). [Systematic review (18 cases)].
Patel et al. — Skin Appendage Disord (2017). [Systematic review (18 cases)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28879195/
Li et al. — FDA Safety Communication (2017). [Regulatory]. General
Li D et al. - FDA Safety Communication (2017). [Safety Alert]. Safety
Mock DM - Journal of Nutrition (2017). [Expert Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28053236/
Mock DM — J Nutr (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28490668/
Biotin lab interference — FDA warning (2017). [Safety notice]. https://www.fda.gov/safety/medwatch-safety-alerts-human-medical-products/biotin-may-interfere-lab-tests-fda-safety-communication
McFadden et al — Vet Dermatol (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/vde.12466
Sun et al — J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.12465
Elston MS et al. – The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2016). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27362288/
Tourbah A et al. – Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills, Basingstoke, England) (2016). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27589059/
Sedel F et al. — Mult Scler Relat Disord (2016). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27063613/
Sedel et al. — Mult Scler Relat Disord (2015). [Pilot study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25432947/
Sedel F et al. - Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders (2015). [Phase III RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26590117/
EFSA NDA Panel — EFSA Journal (2014). [Regulatory / Scientific Opinion]. Regulatory / Foundational
Lapik IA et al. – Voprosy pitaniia (2014). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25300112/
Ogawa et al — Gan To Kagaku Ryoho (2014). [Clinical Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24743373/
Abd El-Wahab et al — Poult Sci (2013). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2013-03054
Zhu et al — Br Poult Sci (2012). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071668.2012.722607
Youssef et al — J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) (2012). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0396.2010.01115.x
Li J & Wieringa FT — Asia Pac J Clin Nutr (2011). [Review].
Colombo et al. — Nutrients (2010). [Review]. General
Zempleni J et al. — Annu Rev Nutr (2009). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19400697/
Albarracin CA et al. – Diabetes/metabolism research and reviews (2008). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17506119/
Scheinfeld N et al. – Journal of drugs in dermatology : JDD (2007). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17763607/
Albarracin C et al. – Journal of the cardiometabolic syndrome (2007). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684468/
Geohas J et al. – The American journal of the medical sciences (2007). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17496732/
Bolander FF – Current opinion in investigational drugs (London, England : 2000) (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17086936/
Singer GM et al. – Diabetes technology & therapeutics (2006). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17109595/
Revilla-Monsalve C et al. – Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie (2006). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16677798/
Scher RK et al. – Dermatology nursing (2003). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12656000/
Biotin keratin mechanism — established (Established). [Established science].
Biotin pregnancy needs — established (Established). [Clinical observation].
Biotin for hair loss: systematic evidence assessment. [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26327679/
Biotin and biotinidase deficiency: clinical review. [Review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5129763/
Role of biotin in gene expression and chromatin structure. [Review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3509882/
Biotin deficiency and neurological dysfunction. [Review]. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2015/841570
Biotin interference with laboratory thyroid function tests. [Review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5996940/
Biotin status and supplementation in pregnancy. [Review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3500876/
Biotin supplementation effects on glycemic control. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31022908/
Biotin and its role in metabolic processes and health. [Review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5852775/
Biotin supplementation review for hair and nail disorders. [Review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4772032/
The Benefits of Elderberry Extract
Elderberry Extract
Elderberry Extract is used for its powerful antioxidants and traditional role in supporting immune function.
Key Highlights
- Traditional European remedy for immune support
- Rich in flavonoids including anthocyanins and quercetin
- Contains vitamins A, B, and C naturally
- Recognised in European herbal medicine traditions
Biochemistry Timeline
The active compounds in elderberry, primarily anthocyanins and flavonoids, are absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract within hours of consumption. Research suggests elderberry compounds may interact with immune cells relatively quickly. For ongoing immune support, consistent daily intake is recommended, particularly during the autumn and winter months.
Summary
Elderberry (Sambucus nigra) has been used in European folk medicine for centuries, and it grows abundantly across Scandinavia. Modern research has explored its flavonoid-rich profile and potential role in supporting the immune system. While the evidence is still developing, elderberry remains one of the most studied traditional remedies for seasonal wellness.
FAQs
Can I take elderberry every day?
Yes, elderberry extract at recommended doses is generally considered safe for daily use. Many people take it as part of their routine during colder months for ongoing immune support.
Is raw elderberry safe?
Raw elderberries, bark, and leaves contain compounds that can cause nausea. Commercial elderberry extracts and supplements are processed to remove these compounds, making them safe for consumption.
Does elderberry actually work for immune support?
Several studies have shown promising results, but the evidence is still evolving. Elderberry extract appears to contain compounds that support normal immune function, though it should not be considered a replacement for medical treatment.
Research
Khalil AM et al. — Inflammopharmacology (2026). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41665742/
Curtis AF et al. — Int J Mol Sci (2024). [Feasibility trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38673938/
Goh KM et al. — Nutrients (2024). [Clinical study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39770987/
Sanlier N et al. — Curr Nutr Rep (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39278865/
Liu D et al. — J Agric Food Chem (2022). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35348337/
Asgary S & Pouramini A — Adv Biomed Res (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36518861/
Crawford C et al. — Nutrients (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36364865/
Wieland LS et al. — BMC Complement Med Ther (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33827515/
Macknin M et al. — J Gen Intern Med (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32929634/
Hawkins J et al. — Complement Ther Med (2019). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30670267/
Tiralongo E et al. — Nutrients (2016). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27023596/
Anthocyanin content — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
12 studies — Elderberry Extract
Khalil AM et al. — Inflammopharmacology (2026). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41665742/
Curtis AF et al. — Int J Mol Sci (2024). [Feasibility trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38673938/
Goh KM et al. — Nutrients (2024). [Clinical study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39770987/
Sanlier N et al. — Curr Nutr Rep (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39278865/
Liu D et al. — J Agric Food Chem (2022). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35348337/
Asgary S & Pouramini A — Adv Biomed Res (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36518861/
Crawford C et al. — Nutrients (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36364865/
Wieland LS et al. — BMC Complement Med Ther (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33827515/
Macknin M et al. — J Gen Intern Med (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32929634/
Hawkins J et al. — Complement Ther Med (2019). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30670267/
Tiralongo E et al. — Nutrients (2016). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27023596/
Anthocyanin content — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
The Benefits of FOS
FOS
Prebiotic fiber
Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) are a type of prebiotic fiber that functions primarily by nourishing beneficial gut bacteria, such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus. As a non-digestible carbohydrate, FOS passes through the small intestine intact and is fermented by microorganisms in the colon.
Key Highlights
- A natural prebiotic fibre that feeds beneficial gut bacteria
- Selectively promotes growth of Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli
- Supports mineral absorption, particularly calcium and magnesium
- Found naturally in foods like onions, garlic, and bananas
Biochemistry Timeline
FOS passes through the stomach and small intestine undigested, arriving in the colon where it is selectively fermented by beneficial bacteria. This fermentation produces short-chain fatty acids that nourish the gut lining and lower intestinal pH, creating conditions that favour beneficial organisms. Changes in gut bacteria populations are measurable within 1 to 2 weeks of regular intake.
Summary
Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) are natural prebiotic fibres that serve as fuel for the beneficial bacteria in your gut. By selectively feeding Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli, FOS helps these populations grow and thrive. This makes FOS an ideal companion to probiotic supplements, supporting a healthy and balanced microbiome from the inside.
FAQs
What is the difference between FOS and inulin?
Both are prebiotic fibres from the fructan family. FOS has shorter chain lengths than inulin, which means it is fermented more rapidly in the colon. Many formulations use both for complementary benefits.
Can FOS cause bloating?
Some people may experience mild gas or bloating when first introducing FOS, as gut bacteria adjust. Starting with a lower dose and increasing gradually usually prevents discomfort.
Research
Priyadarshini M, Jorgensen J, Stauffer SRC et al. (2026). A high fermentable fiber Western diet reduces indole levels. bioRxiv. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41659626/
Kong Y, Cao P, Wu J et al. (2026). Prebiotics as adjunctive treatment ameliorates DSS-induced colitis and gut microbiota. Microbiol Spectr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41363846/
Ma Y, Luo H, Chen J et al. (2026). Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Xylo-oligosaccharides improve meat quality and modulate the microbiota composition of Magang geese aged 22-50 days. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41265136/
Arioz Tunc H, Calder PC, Cait A et al. (2026). Impact of non-digestible carbohydrates and prebiotics on immunity, infections, inflammation and vaccine responses: a systematic review of evidence in healthy humans and a discussion of mechanistic proposals. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40516031/
Verstegen REM, Zuurveld M, Thijssen S et al. (2025). A Specific Ratio of Dietary Short-Chain and Long-Chain Fructo-Oligosaccharides Shifts the Immune Response Away from Type 2 in a Murine Model for House Dust Mite-Induced Asthma. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41305571/
Triva F, Borghi E, Marsiglia MD et al. (2025). Targeting the gut to improve seizure control in CDKL5 deficiency disorder (CDD): study protocol for a single-arm, open-label clinical trial. Front Neurol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41230376/
Arumugam B, Deotale S, Chakravarty I et al. (2025). Enzyme Treated Sapota Seed Dietary Fibre Is a Novel Prebiotic Feed Additive: In Vitro Studies. Biotechnol Appl Biochem. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41178122/
Yap BJM, Yeo SK, Ng WK et al. (2025). Fructooligosaccharides and immune health: immunomodulatory effects via gut microbiota and direct molecular mechanisms. Int J Food Sci Nutr [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41053937/
Ruangpanit Y, Rassmidatta K, Philatha A et al. (2025). Effects of fructooligosaccharide administration routes on growth performance, gut integrity, microbiota, and meat quality in broiler chickens exposed to reused litter. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41027278/
McCullough F, Cheung J, Miller LJ (2025). A Systematic Review Evaluating the Impact of Fibre Supplementation on Gut Health and Other Clinical Outcomes in Adults with Haematological Malignancies During Haematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41010499/
Xue RY, Zhang YS, Xi JF et al. (2025). Dietary prebiotics combined with iron supplementation: A two-pronged approach to reduce rice cadmium bioavailability. Food Chem Toxicol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40976360/
Adedigba P, Ice JA, Alake SE et al. (2025). Dietary Tart Cherry and Fructooligosaccharides Promote Bone Health via the Gut Microbiota and Increased Bone Formation. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40944216/
Mo C, Zhou S, Du Z et al. (2025). Impact of fructooligosaccharides on gut microbiota composition and metabolite production: implications for childhood obesity. PeerJ. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40895066/
Ekwudo MN, Masson B, Di Natale MR et al. (2025). Prebiotics improve motor function, cognition and gut health in a preclinical model of Huntington's disease. Brain Behav Immun. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40803456/
Wong WY, Chan BD, Cho PT et al. (2025). A non-pharmacological intervention for insomnia: tryptophan-fructooligosaccharides combination improves sleep in mice via anti-inflammation and gut microbiota modulation. Food Funct. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40772548/
Kim JH, Kim HR, Seong H et al. (2025). Makgeolli Lees as a Novel Prebiotic Candidate: Effects on Human Gut Microbiota and Metabolites. J Microbiol Biotechnol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40582765/
Li M, Zhang Q, Zhao W et al. (2025). Effects and Persistence of Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BL-99 and Fructooligosaccharides on Older Adults with Functional Constipation: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. J Nutr Health Aging. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40499217/
Aryati Y, Farastuti E, Sholichah L et al. (2025). Effects of honey saccharide supplementation on growth performance, amylase enzyme activity, gut microvilli, and microbiome in Cyprinus carpio. Vet World. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40041522/
Namted S, Chailaor P, Bunchasak C (2025). Effects of drinking water fructo-oligosaccharide supplementation on broiler chicken growth performance, blood glucose level, white blood cell count, carcass yield, meat quality, and cecal microbiota. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40024010/
Dhanasiri AKS, Li Y, Krogdahl Å et al. (2024). Longitudinal study on the effects of a synbiotic supplement to Atlantic salmon diets on performance, gut microbiota and immune responses during antibiotic treatment and subsequent recovery. Anim Microbiome. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39707555/
20 studies — FOS
Priyadarshini M, Jorgensen J, Stauffer SRC et al. (2026). A high fermentable fiber Western diet reduces indole levels. bioRxiv. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41659626/
Kong Y, Cao P, Wu J et al. (2026). Prebiotics as adjunctive treatment ameliorates DSS-induced colitis and gut microbiota. Microbiol Spectr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41363846/
Ma Y, Luo H, Chen J et al. (2026). Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Xylo-oligosaccharides improve meat quality and modulate the microbiota composition of Magang geese aged 22-50 days. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41265136/
Arioz Tunc H, Calder PC, Cait A et al. (2026). Impact of non-digestible carbohydrates and prebiotics on immunity, infections, inflammation and vaccine responses: a systematic review of evidence in healthy humans and a discussion of mechanistic proposals. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40516031/
Verstegen REM, Zuurveld M, Thijssen S et al. (2025). A Specific Ratio of Dietary Short-Chain and Long-Chain Fructo-Oligosaccharides Shifts the Immune Response Away from Type 2 in a Murine Model for House Dust Mite-Induced Asthma. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41305571/
Triva F, Borghi E, Marsiglia MD et al. (2025). Targeting the gut to improve seizure control in CDKL5 deficiency disorder (CDD): study protocol for a single-arm, open-label clinical trial. Front Neurol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41230376/
Arumugam B, Deotale S, Chakravarty I et al. (2025). Enzyme Treated Sapota Seed Dietary Fibre Is a Novel Prebiotic Feed Additive: In Vitro Studies. Biotechnol Appl Biochem. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41178122/
Yap BJM, Yeo SK, Ng WK et al. (2025). Fructooligosaccharides and immune health: immunomodulatory effects via gut microbiota and direct molecular mechanisms. Int J Food Sci Nutr [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41053937/
Ruangpanit Y, Rassmidatta K, Philatha A et al. (2025). Effects of fructooligosaccharide administration routes on growth performance, gut integrity, microbiota, and meat quality in broiler chickens exposed to reused litter. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41027278/
McCullough F, Cheung J, Miller LJ (2025). A Systematic Review Evaluating the Impact of Fibre Supplementation on Gut Health and Other Clinical Outcomes in Adults with Haematological Malignancies During Haematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41010499/
Xue RY, Zhang YS, Xi JF et al. (2025). Dietary prebiotics combined with iron supplementation: A two-pronged approach to reduce rice cadmium bioavailability. Food Chem Toxicol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40976360/
Adedigba P, Ice JA, Alake SE et al. (2025). Dietary Tart Cherry and Fructooligosaccharides Promote Bone Health via the Gut Microbiota and Increased Bone Formation. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40944216/
Mo C, Zhou S, Du Z et al. (2025). Impact of fructooligosaccharides on gut microbiota composition and metabolite production: implications for childhood obesity. PeerJ. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40895066/
Ekwudo MN, Masson B, Di Natale MR et al. (2025). Prebiotics improve motor function, cognition and gut health in a preclinical model of Huntington's disease. Brain Behav Immun. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40803456/
Wong WY, Chan BD, Cho PT et al. (2025). A non-pharmacological intervention for insomnia: tryptophan-fructooligosaccharides combination improves sleep in mice via anti-inflammation and gut microbiota modulation. Food Funct. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40772548/
Kim JH, Kim HR, Seong H et al. (2025). Makgeolli Lees as a Novel Prebiotic Candidate: Effects on Human Gut Microbiota and Metabolites. J Microbiol Biotechnol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40582765/
Li M, Zhang Q, Zhao W et al. (2025). Effects and Persistence of Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BL-99 and Fructooligosaccharides on Older Adults with Functional Constipation: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. J Nutr Health Aging. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40499217/
Aryati Y, Farastuti E, Sholichah L et al. (2025). Effects of honey saccharide supplementation on growth performance, amylase enzyme activity, gut microvilli, and microbiome in Cyprinus carpio. Vet World. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40041522/
Namted S, Chailaor P, Bunchasak C (2025). Effects of drinking water fructo-oligosaccharide supplementation on broiler chicken growth performance, blood glucose level, white blood cell count, carcass yield, meat quality, and cecal microbiota. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40024010/
Dhanasiri AKS, Li Y, Krogdahl Å et al. (2024). Longitudinal study on the effects of a synbiotic supplement to Atlantic salmon diets on performance, gut microbiota and immune responses during antibiotic treatment and subsequent recovery. Anim Microbiome. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39707555/
The Benefits of Ginkgo Biloba
Ginkgo Biloba
High-Strength
Ginkgo Biloba is one of the oldest living tree species, and its leaf extract has been used in traditional medicine for centuries. It supports blood circulation, particularly to the brain, and may support cognitive function, memory, and concentration. Ginkgo is valued for its antioxidant properties and its ability to support healthy blood flow.
Key Highlights
- Supports healthy blood flow, particularly to the brain
- May support cognitive function, memory, and concentration
- Potent antioxidant properties from flavone glycosides
- One of the oldest living plant species (250+ million years)
- Standardised extract: 24% flavone glycosides, 6% terpene lactones
- Complementary to B vitamins for brain health
Biochemistry Timeline
Ginkgo biloba extract typically requires 4 to 8 weeks of consistent supplementation for cognitive benefits to become noticeable. Standard doses are 120-240 mg per day of standardised extract. Benefits for circulation may be noticed earlier, within 2 to 4 weeks.
Eye Health
By supporting microcirculation, ginkgo may benefit eye health, particularly for those with age-related changes in blood flow to the retina. The antioxidant properties also help protect the delicate tissues of the eye from oxidative damage.
Ear and Hearing Support
Ginkgo has been studied for its potential to support hearing and reduce tinnitus symptoms through its effects on inner ear circulation. While results are mixed, the circulatory mechanism is plausible, and ginkgo remains one of the most commonly used supplements for ear-related concerns.
Summary
Ginkgo Biloba is one of the world's oldest plant species, valued for its ability to support brain circulation, cognitive function, and antioxidant defence. Standardised extracts (120-240 mg/day) may support memory, concentration, and healthy blood flow, with benefits typically developing over 4 to 8 weeks.
FAQs
Can I take ginkgo with blood-thinning medication?
Ginkgo has mild blood-thinning properties. If you take anticoagulant or antiplatelet medication, consult your healthcare provider before taking ginkgo.
How long before I notice effects?
Cognitive benefits typically require 4-8 weeks of consistent supplementation at 120-240 mg/day.
Is ginkgo safe during pregnancy?
Ginkgo is not recommended during pregnancy due to its blood-thinning properties. Consult your healthcare provider.
Research
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Xu L et al. – Complementary therapies in medicine (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25847559/
Wang LP et al. – Genetics and molecular research : GMR (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25966264/
Guo SG et al. – Journal of biological regulators and homeostatic agents (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25864752/
Acar et al — B-ENT (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26563011/
LaSala et al — Clin Toxicol (Phila) (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2014.999159
Shakibaei et al — Complement Ther Clin Pract (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2015.04.001
Gauthier S et al. – Clinical interventions in aging (2014). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25506211/
Savage J et al. – BMJ clinical evidence (2014). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25328113/
Brondino N et al. - European Neuropsychopharmacology (2013). [Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3679686/
Amen DG et al. – Advances in mind-body medicine (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23709409/
Rainer M et al. – Wiener klinische Wochenschrift (2013). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23292640/
Hilton MP et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2013). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23543524/
Diamond BJ et al. – The Psychiatric clinics of North America (2013). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23538078/
B vitamin neural function — EFSA (2012). [Regulatory]. General
Laws et al. — Hum Psychopharmacol (2012). [Meta-analysis (10 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22232040/
Laws KR et al. - Human Psychopharmacology (2012). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23001963/
Savage J et al. – BMJ clinical evidence (2012). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22331367/
Zhang SJ et al. – Asian Pacific journal of tropical medicine (2012). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22840457/
Silberstein et al. — Evid Based Complement Alternat Med (2011). [Review]. General
Weinmann S et al. – BMC geriatrics (2010). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20236541/
Abad MJ et al. – Current drug metabolism (2010). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20359286/
Birks J et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2009). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19160216/
Kasper S et al. – Fortschritte der Neurologie-Psychiatrie (2009). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19621278/
Savage J et al. – BMJ clinical evidence (2009). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21726476/
DeKosky et al. — GEM Study, JAMA (2008). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017911/
Bone KM – Molecular nutrition & food research (2008). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18214851/
Birks J et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2007). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17443523/
Savage J et al. – BMJ clinical evidence (2007). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19454115/
Canter PH et al. – Human psychopharmacology (2007). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17480002/
Woelk H et al. – Journal of psychiatric research (2007). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16808927/
Dugoua JJ et al. – The Canadian journal of clinical pharmacology = Journal canadien de pharmacologie clinique (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17085776/
Hilton M et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2004). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15106224/
Mattes RD et al. – Human psychopharmacology (2004). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14994317/
Birks J et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2002). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12519586/
Stough et al. — Hum Psychopharmacol (2001). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12404701/
Diamond BJ et al. – Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation (2000). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10807109/
Wong AH et al. – Archives of general psychiatry (1998). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9819073/
Gessner B et al. – Arzneimittel-Forschung (1985). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3910053/
Ginkgo biloba cognitive meta-analyses (Various). [Multiple meta-analyses]. General
Combination cognitive support logic. [Formulation logic]. General
Ginkgo flavonoid glycosides — mechanism (Established). [Mechanistic]. General
Ginkgo biloba antioxidant properties in vivo. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17457961/
Ginkgo biloba and working memory in middle-aged adults. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17341003/
Ginkgo biloba and attention in healthy volunteers. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15739076/
Ginkgo biloba for PMS and menstrual symptoms. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21802920/
Ginkgo biloba extract and anxiety: clinical trial. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22086747/
Ginkgo biloba and blood circulation improvement. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19678774/
Ginkgo biloba for tinnitus: systematic review. [Systematic review]. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2010105817716184
Ginkgo biloba and neuroprotection: molecular mechanisms. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5579597/
119 studies — Ginkgo Biloba
Wieland LS et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2026). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41641880/
Nazeam et al — Chem Biodivers (2026). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.202502901
Jianbunjongkit et al — J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg (2026). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/19160216251407927
Gao et al — Front Pharmacol (2026). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2026.1654013
Li P et al. – BMJ open (2025). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40441764/
Wang ZY et al. – Frontiers in pharmacology (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40213691/
Bayo Jimenez et al — Int J Mol Sci (2025). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms262110631
Fan et al — Front Neurol (2025). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2025.1649429
Duan et al — J Affect Disord (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.09.131
Shen et al — Head Face Med (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13005-025-00545-2
Han et al — Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.19540/j.cnki.cjcmm.20250103.501
Li et al — Zhonghua Er Bi Yan Hou Tou Jing Wai Ke Za Zhi (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3760/cma.j.cn115330-20250419-00239
Tiralongo et al — J Integr Complement Med (2025). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1089/jicm.2023.0620
Chen L et al. – Phytotherapy research : PTR (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38972848/
Zhu Q et al. – Pakistan journal of pharmaceutical sciences (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39340861/
Nimmons D et al. – Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38097097/
Deng X et al. – Medicine (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39312316/
Wal A et al. – Current cardiology reviews (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38706368/
Li C et al. – Zhongguo zhen jiu = Chinese acupuncture & moxibustion (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38867626/
Liu et al — Am J Chin Med (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0192415X24500435
Morató X et al. – Scientific reports (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37012306/
Cheng W et al. – Current drug metabolism (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36650621/
Chen et al — Phytomedicine (2023). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2023.155009
Kirkman et al — Cancer Med (2023). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1002/cam4.5760
Tao et al — Zhongguo Zhen Jiu (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.13703/j.0255-2930.20230223-k0002
Zhang et al — JAMA Netw Open (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.28828
Xie L et al. – Cells (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35159288/
Sereda M et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2022). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36383762/
Noor-E-Tabassum et al. – Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35265150/
Fan et al — J Alzheimers Dis (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-215423
Li et al — Front Pharmacol (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.924747
Cheng et al — Mol Nutr Food Res (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.202100976
Sha et al — J Tradit Chin Med (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.19852/j.cnki.jtcm.20211214.001
Young et al — Nutrients (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14235079
de Vries K et al. – Frontiers in nutrition (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35155509/
Tan CSS et al. – British journal of clinical pharmacology (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32478963/
Crawford C et al. – Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.) (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34370563/
Constantin et al — Am J Ther (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1097/MJT.0000000000001170
Koch et al — J Lipid Res (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.P119000473
Lai et al — Front Aging Neurosci (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2020.00121
Zhang et al — Front Pharmacol (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.00778
Radunz et al — Braz J Otorhinolaryngol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjorl.2019.05.003
Sheng et al — Zhongguo Zhen Jiu (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.13703/j.0255-2930.20190614-k0002
Mathie et al — Homeopathy (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1677481
Savaskan E et al. – International psychogeriatrics (2018). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28931444/
Wightman EL et al. – Nutrients (2018). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30042362/
Soares-Weiser K et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2018). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29552749/
Perng CH et al. – Psychopharmacology (2018). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29502274/
Kramer F et al. – Medwave (2018). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30339143/
Procházková K et al. – International journal of clinical pharmacy (2018). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29855986/
Cicero et al — Pharmacol Res (2018). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2017.12.029
McGrattan et al — Br J Nutr (2018). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114518002945
Ghorani-Azam et al — Phytother Res (2018). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6120
Harris et al — Acta Ophthalmol (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/aos.13530
Spiegel et al — Clin Interv Aging (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S157877
Ni et al — Lin Chuang Er Bi Yan Hou Tou Jing Wai Ke Za Zhi (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.13201/j.issn.1001-1781.2018.09.004
Yuan Q et al. - Phytomedicine (2017). [Overview of Systematic Reviews]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27912875/
Yoo et al — Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-017-4556-1
Jackson PA et al. – Nutrients (2016). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26867200/
von Gunten A et al. – The world journal of biological psychiatry : the official journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (2016). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26223956/
Polanski et al — Braz J Otorhinolaryngol (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjorl.2015.04.016
Izzo et al — Phytother Res (2016). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.5591
Xu et al — Lin Chuang Er Bi Yan Hou Tou Jing Wai Ke Za Zhi (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.13201/j.issn.1001-1781.2016.14.015
Koo et al — Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-015-3821-4
Beck et al — Hum Psychopharmacol (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2534
Steiner et al — BMC Complement Altern Med (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-016-0989-0
Tan et al. — J Alzheimers Dis (2015). [Meta-analysis (21 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26444735/
Tan MS et al. - Journal of Alzheimers Disease (2015). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26268332/
Lehert P et al. – Climacteric : the journal of the International Menopause Society (2015). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26361790/
Tan MS et al. – Journal of Alzheimer's disease : JAD (2015). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25114079/
Xu L et al. – Complementary therapies in medicine (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25847559/
Wang LP et al. – Genetics and molecular research : GMR (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25966264/
Guo SG et al. – Journal of biological regulators and homeostatic agents (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25864752/
Acar et al — B-ENT (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26563011/
LaSala et al — Clin Toxicol (Phila) (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2014.999159
Shakibaei et al — Complement Ther Clin Pract (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2015.04.001
Gauthier S et al. – Clinical interventions in aging (2014). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25506211/
Savage J et al. – BMJ clinical evidence (2014). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25328113/
Brondino N et al. - European Neuropsychopharmacology (2013). [Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3679686/
Amen DG et al. – Advances in mind-body medicine (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23709409/
Rainer M et al. – Wiener klinische Wochenschrift (2013). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23292640/
Hilton MP et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2013). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23543524/
Diamond BJ et al. – The Psychiatric clinics of North America (2013). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23538078/
B vitamin neural function — EFSA (2012). [Regulatory]. General
Laws et al. — Hum Psychopharmacol (2012). [Meta-analysis (10 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22232040/
Laws KR et al. - Human Psychopharmacology (2012). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23001963/
Savage J et al. – BMJ clinical evidence (2012). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22331367/
Zhang SJ et al. – Asian Pacific journal of tropical medicine (2012). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22840457/
Silberstein et al. — Evid Based Complement Alternat Med (2011). [Review]. General
Weinmann S et al. – BMC geriatrics (2010). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20236541/
Abad MJ et al. – Current drug metabolism (2010). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20359286/
Birks J et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2009). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19160216/
Kasper S et al. – Fortschritte der Neurologie-Psychiatrie (2009). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19621278/
Savage J et al. – BMJ clinical evidence (2009). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21726476/
DeKosky et al. — GEM Study, JAMA (2008). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017911/
Bone KM – Molecular nutrition & food research (2008). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18214851/
Birks J et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2007). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17443523/
Savage J et al. – BMJ clinical evidence (2007). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19454115/
Canter PH et al. – Human psychopharmacology (2007). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17480002/
Woelk H et al. – Journal of psychiatric research (2007). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16808927/
Dugoua JJ et al. – The Canadian journal of clinical pharmacology = Journal canadien de pharmacologie clinique (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17085776/
Hilton M et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2004). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15106224/
Mattes RD et al. – Human psychopharmacology (2004). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14994317/
Birks J et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2002). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12519586/
Stough et al. — Hum Psychopharmacol (2001). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12404701/
Diamond BJ et al. – Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation (2000). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10807109/
Wong AH et al. – Archives of general psychiatry (1998). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9819073/
Gessner B et al. – Arzneimittel-Forschung (1985). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3910053/
Ginkgo biloba cognitive meta-analyses (Various). [Multiple meta-analyses]. General
Combination cognitive support logic. [Formulation logic]. General
Ginkgo flavonoid glycosides — mechanism (Established). [Mechanistic]. General
Ginkgo biloba antioxidant properties in vivo. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17457961/
Ginkgo biloba and working memory in middle-aged adults. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17341003/
Ginkgo biloba and attention in healthy volunteers. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15739076/
Ginkgo biloba for PMS and menstrual symptoms. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21802920/
Ginkgo biloba extract and anxiety: clinical trial. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22086747/
Ginkgo biloba and blood circulation improvement. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19678774/
Ginkgo biloba for tinnitus: systematic review. [Systematic review]. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2010105817716184
Ginkgo biloba and neuroprotection: molecular mechanisms. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5579597/
The Benefits of Horsetail Extract
Horsetail Extract
Horsetail (Equisetum arvense) is a plant-based source of natural silica, a trace mineral that supports the structural integrity of hair, nails, skin, and connective tissue. Horsetail has been used in traditional European herbal medicine for centuries, valued for its high mineral content and its potential to support the body's structural tissues.
Key Highlights
- Natural plant source of silica (silicon dioxide)
- Supports hair, nail, and connective tissue structure
- One of the oldest plants on Earth (300+ million years)
- Traditional European herbal use for structural tissue support
- Often combined with biotin, zinc, and collagen for comprehensive hair support
Biochemistry Timeline
Silica from horsetail is absorbed over time. Hair and nail improvements may take 3-6 months due to slow growth cycles. Consistent daily supplementation is important for structural tissue benefits.
Summary
Horsetail Extract is a natural, plant-based source of silica that supports the structural integrity of hair, nails, and connective tissue. It has been used in European herbal medicine for centuries and is often combined with other hair-supportive nutrients for comprehensive support.
FAQs
Is horsetail safe long-term?
Horsetail extract is generally safe for most people. However, it contains small amounts of thiaminase (an enzyme that breaks down thiamine/B1), so long-term use should be accompanied by adequate B1 intake. Consult your healthcare provider for extended use.
Research
Johnson W et al. — Int J Toxicol (2026). [Safety assessment]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41069090/
Invernizzi M et al. — Med Sci (2025). [Clinical trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40981167/
Salvadori L et al. — Biomed Pharmacother (2024). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38574619/
Sureshkumar J et al. — J Ethnopharmacol (2023). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37207877/
Carneiro DM et al. — Phytomedicine (2022). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35168030/
Waterstradt A et al. — Planta Med (2022). [RCT (3-armed pilot)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34706374/
Shiba F et al. — Int J Dent (2022). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36794024/
Boeing T et al. — Evid Based Complement Alternat Med (2021). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33747109/
Batir-Marin D et al. — Molecules (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33924900/
Boqué N et al. — Sci Rep (2021). [RCT (crossover, double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34389753/
Araújo LA et al. — An Bras Dermatol (2016). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27438200/
Asgharikhatooni A et al. — Iran Red Crescent Med J (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26019907/
12 studies — Horsetail Extract
Johnson W et al. — Int J Toxicol (2026). [Safety assessment]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41069090/
Invernizzi M et al. — Med Sci (2025). [Clinical trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40981167/
Salvadori L et al. — Biomed Pharmacother (2024). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38574619/
Sureshkumar J et al. — J Ethnopharmacol (2023). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37207877/
Carneiro DM et al. — Phytomedicine (2022). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35168030/
Waterstradt A et al. — Planta Med (2022). [RCT (3-armed pilot)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34706374/
Shiba F et al. — Int J Dent (2022). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36794024/
Boeing T et al. — Evid Based Complement Alternat Med (2021). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33747109/
Batir-Marin D et al. — Molecules (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33924900/
Boqué N et al. — Sci Rep (2021). [RCT (crossover, double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34389753/
Araújo LA et al. — An Bras Dermatol (2016). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27438200/
Asgharikhatooni A et al. — Iran Red Crescent Med J (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26019907/
The Benefits of Hyaluronic Acid
Hyaluronic Acid
High Absorption form
Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a naturally occurring molecule found throughout the body, with the highest concentrations in skin, eyes, and connective tissue. It has a remarkable ability to hold up to 1,000 times its weight in water, making it essential for skin hydration, joint lubrication, and tissue repair. Natural production declines with age, which contributes to visible signs of skin ageing.
Key Highlights
- Holds up to 1,000 times its weight in water
- Significantly improves skin hydration and elasticity (2025 clinical studies)
- May reduce wrinkle depth with consistent supplementation
- Supports joint lubrication and comfort
- Natural production declines ~50% by age 50
- Well-absorbed as oral sodium hyaluronate
Biochemistry Timeline
Oral HA supplementation typically shows measurable improvements in skin hydration within 6 to 8 weeks, with continued improvement up to 12 weeks. Joint-related benefits may take 8 to 12 weeks. Typical studied doses are 60-200 mg per day. HA is well-tolerated with an excellent safety profile.
Wound Healing
Hyaluronic acid plays a role in wound healing by regulating inflammation and supporting the formation of new blood vessels and tissue. HA levels increase at wound sites, helping to scaffold new tissue growth. This natural role in tissue repair extends to the skin's ability to recover from damage.
Gum and Oral Health
HA is found in gum tissue and plays a role in maintaining healthy oral tissues. Research has explored HA's use in supporting gum health and healing after dental procedures. Adequate HA levels support the integrity of the soft tissues in the mouth.
Summary
Hyaluronic acid is a naturally occurring molecule essential for skin hydration, joint lubrication, and tissue health. Oral supplementation with 60-200 mg per day has been shown to significantly improve skin hydration, elasticity, and brightness within 6 to 12 weeks. Natural HA production declines with age, making supplementation increasingly relevant from the 30s onwards.
FAQs
How much hyaluronic acid should I take?
Research has used 60-200 mg per day of sodium hyaluronate. Benefits are typically seen at 60 mg/day within 6-12 weeks.
Is oral HA as effective as topical?
They work differently. Topical HA hydrates the skin surface, while oral HA supports hydration from within at the dermal level. Together, they provide complementary benefits.
Are there any side effects?
Oral hyaluronic acid is generally very well-tolerated with an excellent safety profile. Side effects are rare.
Is HA safe during pregnancy?
HA is a naturally occurring substance in the body. Oral supplements are generally considered safe, but consult your healthcare provider during pregnancy.
Research
Amin et al. — J Drugs Dermatol (2025). [Meta-analysis (7 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40911749/
Contipro — Scientific Reports (Nature) (2025). [RCT (double-blind, placebo-controlled)]. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-32758-5
Montero-Vilchez et al. — Dermatol Ther (Springer) (2025). [RCT (double-blind, placebo-controlled)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40498387/
JDD — J Drugs Dermatol (2025). [Meta-analysis (7 RCTs)].
Montero-Vilchez et al. — Dermatol Ther (2025). [RCT (placebo-controlled)].
Zague V et al. – Journal of medicinal food (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40518844/
Dolečková I et al. – Scientific reports (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41422283/
Atmeh BSK et al. – Oral surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology and oral radiology (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40645842/
Yang J et al. – Frontiers in immunology (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41246343/
Wang X et al. – International journal of pharmaceutics (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39799999/
Liu T et al. – Probiotics and antimicrobial proteins (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40643864/
Whittle SL et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40169165/
Marchand Lamiraud F et al. – Maturitas (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40273666/
Bensmail H et al. – Maturitas (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40773978/
Xu et al — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-025-08474-6
Safonova et al — Vestn Oftalmol (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.17116/oftalma202514102151
Maity et al — Optom Vis Sci (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000002206
Chęciński M et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39273351/
Cenzato N et al. – The British journal of oral & maxillofacial surgery (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39317566/
Muhammad P et al. – Archives of dermatological research (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38829483/
Ranawat A et al. – Advances in therapy (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37899384/
Agrawal S et al. – Menopause (New York, N.Y.) (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39042017/
Christidis et al — Drugs (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-023-01971-9
Jawanda et al — Arthroscopy (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arthro.2024.01.037
Chen et al — J Orthop Surg Res (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13018-024-04846-1
Yin et al — Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923973.2024.2390449
Ghorbani et al — J Prev Med Hyg (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2024.65.2.3270
Bliddal et al — Clin Exp Rheumatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.55563/clinexprheumatol/i3fqee
Li et al — BMJ (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2024-080474
Jia et al — Optom Vis Sci (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000002172
Carlo et al — Eur J Ophthalmol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/11206721241234427
Moon et al — BMC Ophthalmol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-024-03620-5
Liu et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16211
Zhu et al — J Refract Surg (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3928/1081597X-20240311-03
Lee et al — Eye Contact Lens (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/ICL.0000000000001101
Huo et al — Expert Rev Clin Immunol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/1744666X.2024.2358157
Gao et al. — Skin Res Technol (2023). [RCT (double-blind)].
Guadagna et al. — J Med Food (2023). [Systematic review & MA (15 RCTs)]. General
Na GH et al. – Nutrients (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38201966/
Chen Y et al. – Military Medical Research (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37608335/
Yuan N et al. – International journal of biological macromolecules (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37019198/
Casiano Evans EA et al. – Obstetrics and gynecology (2023). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37543737/
Gold D et al. – Maturitas (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36279690/
Tschopp et al — Invest Radiol (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/RLI.0000000000000942
Qiao et al — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-023-06925-6
Paget et al — Am J Sports Med (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/03635465231182438
Belk et al — Arthroscopy (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arthro.2023.03.001
Familiari et al — J Orthop Res (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/jor.25648
Jiang et al — J Orthop Surg Res (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13018-023-03747-z
Pastrana et al — Eye Contact Lens (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/ICL.0000000000000955
Jaworski et al — Eur J Ophthalmol (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/11206721231169540
Sakhnov et al — Vestn Oftalmol (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.17116/oftalma202313901146
Sun et al — BMC Ophthalmol (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-023-02805-8
Xu et al — Medicine (Baltimore) (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000034923
Hyrylev et al. — Nutrients (2022). [Systematic review (11 studies)]. General
Yang S et al. – Frontiers in endocrinology (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36213270/
Nappi RE et al. – Minerva obstetrics and gynecology (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34096694/
Cagnacci A et al. – European journal of obstetrics, gynecology, and reproductive biology (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35131532/
Rasmussen et al — Eur J Pain (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejp.1909
Sun et al — Zhongguo Zhen Jiu (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.13703/j.0255-2930.20201108-k0005
Michelotti A et al. – European journal of dermatology : EJD (2021). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34933842/
Juncan AM et al. – Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34361586/
Dixon D et al. – Drugs (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33382445/
Bosi A et al. – Cells (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35011688/
Dos Santos CCM et al. – The journal of sexual medicine (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33293236/
Buzzaccarini G et al. – Climacteric : the journal of the International Menopause Society (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33759670/
Raeissadat et al — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-021-04017-x
Filardo et al — Cartilage (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1177/1947603520931170
Anil et al — Knee (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.knee.2021.08.008
McLarnon et al — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-021-04308-3
Shah BM et al. – International journal of biological macromolecules (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33010274/
Kobayashi T et al. – Biomolecules (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33171800/
Graça MFP et al. – Carbohydrate polymers (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32507198/
Tang et al — J Orthop Surg Res (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13018-020-01919-9
Zhao et al — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-020-03262-w
Liu et al — J Oral Maxillofac Surg (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joms.2019.10.016
Ren et al — J Int Med Res (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1177/0300060520964661
Wolsey et al — J Ocul Pharmacol Ther (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1089/jop.2019.0156
Zhang et al — Zhongguo Zhen Jiu (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.13703/j.0255-2930.20190706-0001
Schwartz SR et al. – Alternative therapies in health and medicine (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31221944/
Gupta RC et al. – Frontiers in veterinary science (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31294035/
García-Conca et al — Acta Ophthalmol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/aos.13907
Carracedo et al — Acta Ophthalmol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/aos.13887
Larmo et al — Cont Lens Anterior Eye (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clae.2018.11.011
Zhu et al — Zhongguo Zhen Jiu (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.13703/j.0255-2930.2019.08.010
Okutucu et al — Cutan Ocul Toxicol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/15569527.2019.1575390
Sundaram H et al. – Journal of drugs in dermatology : JDD (2018). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29601621/
Kaneko T et al. – Yakugaku zasshi : Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29607994/
Gregori et al — JAMA (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.19319
Ran et al — Int J Surg (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2018.02.065
Carracedo et al — Eye Contact Lens (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/ICL.0000000000000416
Oe M et al. - Journal of Medicinal Food (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27982756/
Stahl et al — Harefuah (2017). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28786278/
Oe et al. — Nutr J (2016). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26795098/
Oe M et al. - Scientific World Journal (2016). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26893578/
Richards MM et al. – The Physician and sportsmedicine (2016). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26985986/
Kawada et al. — J Clin Biochem Nutr (2015). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25530102/
Kawada C et al. - Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26170709/
Campbell KA et al. – Arthroscopy : the journal of arthroscopic & related surgery : official publication of the Arthroscopy Association of North America and the International Arthroscopy Association (2015). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26033459/
Campbell KA et al. – Arthroscopy : the journal of arthroscopic & related surgery : official publication of the Arthroscopy Association of North America and the International Arthroscopy Association (2015). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25998016/
Gallagher B et al. – The American journal of sports medicine (2015). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24866892/
Oe et al. — J Agric Food Chem (2014). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25014997/
du Souich P – Pharmacology & therapeutics (2014). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24457028/
Chen J et al. – The journal of sexual medicine (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23574713/
Tashiro T et al. - ScientificWorldJournal (2012). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23326024/
Samson DJ et al. – Evidence report/technology assessment (2007). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18088162/
Matheson AJ et al. – Drugs & aging (2003). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14651444/
Espallargues M et al. – International journal of technology assessment in health care (2003). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12701938/
Oral hyaluronic acid for skin health: meta-analysis. [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35114853/
Oral HA supplementation: systematic review of clinical evidence. [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33804439/
Hyaluronic acid: a key molecule in skin aging. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3051404/
Hyaluronic acid: biological role and clinical applications. [Review]. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0151963810700065
Randomized study of oral HA for skin wrinkles and moisture. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26978861/
Ingested hyaluronan moisturizes dry skin. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22956862/
Oral hyaluronic acid for knee osteoarthritis. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26818459/
Hyaluronic acid in dermatology and aesthetic medicine. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3583886/
Oral hyaluronic acid supplementation for skin moisture. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16049255/
117 studies — Hyaluronic Acid
Amin et al. — J Drugs Dermatol (2025). [Meta-analysis (7 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40911749/
Contipro — Scientific Reports (Nature) (2025). [RCT (double-blind, placebo-controlled)]. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-32758-5
Montero-Vilchez et al. — Dermatol Ther (Springer) (2025). [RCT (double-blind, placebo-controlled)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40498387/
JDD — J Drugs Dermatol (2025). [Meta-analysis (7 RCTs)].
Montero-Vilchez et al. — Dermatol Ther (2025). [RCT (placebo-controlled)].
Zague V et al. – Journal of medicinal food (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40518844/
Dolečková I et al. – Scientific reports (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41422283/
Atmeh BSK et al. – Oral surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology and oral radiology (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40645842/
Yang J et al. – Frontiers in immunology (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41246343/
Wang X et al. – International journal of pharmaceutics (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39799999/
Liu T et al. – Probiotics and antimicrobial proteins (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40643864/
Whittle SL et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40169165/
Marchand Lamiraud F et al. – Maturitas (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40273666/
Bensmail H et al. – Maturitas (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40773978/
Xu et al — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-025-08474-6
Safonova et al — Vestn Oftalmol (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.17116/oftalma202514102151
Maity et al — Optom Vis Sci (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000002206
Chęciński M et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39273351/
Cenzato N et al. – The British journal of oral & maxillofacial surgery (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39317566/
Muhammad P et al. – Archives of dermatological research (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38829483/
Ranawat A et al. – Advances in therapy (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37899384/
Agrawal S et al. – Menopause (New York, N.Y.) (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39042017/
Christidis et al — Drugs (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-023-01971-9
Jawanda et al — Arthroscopy (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arthro.2024.01.037
Chen et al — J Orthop Surg Res (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13018-024-04846-1
Yin et al — Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923973.2024.2390449
Ghorbani et al — J Prev Med Hyg (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2024.65.2.3270
Bliddal et al — Clin Exp Rheumatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.55563/clinexprheumatol/i3fqee
Li et al — BMJ (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2024-080474
Jia et al — Optom Vis Sci (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000002172
Carlo et al — Eur J Ophthalmol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/11206721241234427
Moon et al — BMC Ophthalmol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-024-03620-5
Liu et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16211
Zhu et al — J Refract Surg (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3928/1081597X-20240311-03
Lee et al — Eye Contact Lens (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/ICL.0000000000001101
Huo et al — Expert Rev Clin Immunol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/1744666X.2024.2358157
Gao et al. — Skin Res Technol (2023). [RCT (double-blind)].
Guadagna et al. — J Med Food (2023). [Systematic review & MA (15 RCTs)]. General
Na GH et al. – Nutrients (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38201966/
Chen Y et al. – Military Medical Research (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37608335/
Yuan N et al. – International journal of biological macromolecules (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37019198/
Casiano Evans EA et al. – Obstetrics and gynecology (2023). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37543737/
Gold D et al. – Maturitas (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36279690/
Tschopp et al — Invest Radiol (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/RLI.0000000000000942
Qiao et al — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-023-06925-6
Paget et al — Am J Sports Med (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/03635465231182438
Belk et al — Arthroscopy (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arthro.2023.03.001
Familiari et al — J Orthop Res (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/jor.25648
Jiang et al — J Orthop Surg Res (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13018-023-03747-z
Pastrana et al — Eye Contact Lens (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/ICL.0000000000000955
Jaworski et al — Eur J Ophthalmol (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/11206721231169540
Sakhnov et al — Vestn Oftalmol (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.17116/oftalma202313901146
Sun et al — BMC Ophthalmol (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-023-02805-8
Xu et al — Medicine (Baltimore) (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000034923
Hyrylev et al. — Nutrients (2022). [Systematic review (11 studies)]. General
Yang S et al. – Frontiers in endocrinology (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36213270/
Nappi RE et al. – Minerva obstetrics and gynecology (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34096694/
Cagnacci A et al. – European journal of obstetrics, gynecology, and reproductive biology (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35131532/
Rasmussen et al — Eur J Pain (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejp.1909
Sun et al — Zhongguo Zhen Jiu (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.13703/j.0255-2930.20201108-k0005
Michelotti A et al. – European journal of dermatology : EJD (2021). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34933842/
Juncan AM et al. – Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34361586/
Dixon D et al. – Drugs (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33382445/
Bosi A et al. – Cells (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35011688/
Dos Santos CCM et al. – The journal of sexual medicine (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33293236/
Buzzaccarini G et al. – Climacteric : the journal of the International Menopause Society (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33759670/
Raeissadat et al — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-021-04017-x
Filardo et al — Cartilage (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1177/1947603520931170
Anil et al — Knee (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.knee.2021.08.008
McLarnon et al — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-021-04308-3
Shah BM et al. – International journal of biological macromolecules (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33010274/
Kobayashi T et al. – Biomolecules (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33171800/
Graça MFP et al. – Carbohydrate polymers (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32507198/
Tang et al — J Orthop Surg Res (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13018-020-01919-9
Zhao et al — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-020-03262-w
Liu et al — J Oral Maxillofac Surg (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joms.2019.10.016
Ren et al — J Int Med Res (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1177/0300060520964661
Wolsey et al — J Ocul Pharmacol Ther (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1089/jop.2019.0156
Zhang et al — Zhongguo Zhen Jiu (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.13703/j.0255-2930.20190706-0001
Schwartz SR et al. – Alternative therapies in health and medicine (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31221944/
Gupta RC et al. – Frontiers in veterinary science (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31294035/
García-Conca et al — Acta Ophthalmol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/aos.13907
Carracedo et al — Acta Ophthalmol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/aos.13887
Larmo et al — Cont Lens Anterior Eye (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clae.2018.11.011
Zhu et al — Zhongguo Zhen Jiu (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.13703/j.0255-2930.2019.08.010
Okutucu et al — Cutan Ocul Toxicol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/15569527.2019.1575390
Sundaram H et al. – Journal of drugs in dermatology : JDD (2018). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29601621/
Kaneko T et al. – Yakugaku zasshi : Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29607994/
Gregori et al — JAMA (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.19319
Ran et al — Int J Surg (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2018.02.065
Carracedo et al — Eye Contact Lens (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/ICL.0000000000000416
Oe M et al. - Journal of Medicinal Food (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27982756/
Stahl et al — Harefuah (2017). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28786278/
Oe et al. — Nutr J (2016). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26795098/
Oe M et al. - Scientific World Journal (2016). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26893578/
Richards MM et al. – The Physician and sportsmedicine (2016). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26985986/
Kawada et al. — J Clin Biochem Nutr (2015). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25530102/
Kawada C et al. - Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26170709/
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Oral HA supplementation: systematic review of clinical evidence. [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33804439/
Hyaluronic acid: a key molecule in skin aging. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3051404/
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Ingested hyaluronan moisturizes dry skin. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22956862/
Oral hyaluronic acid for knee osteoarthritis. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26818459/
Hyaluronic acid in dermatology and aesthetic medicine. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3583886/
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The Benefits of Manganese
Manganese
Highly Bioavailable
We use Manganese Citrate Buffered for its high bioavailability and gentle nature on the digestive system. It is a key mineral for bone formation and metabolic processes.
Key Highlights
- Essential trace mineral for enzyme function
- Supports normal connective tissue formation
- Contributes to normal iron transport in the body (EFSA approved)
- Plays a role in maintaining the normal function of the immune system
Biochemistry Timeline
Manganese is absorbed in the small intestine, though absorption rates are relatively low (1 to 5%). Once absorbed, it is distributed to tissues including bone, liver, and kidneys, where it serves as a cofactor for enzymes involved in bone formation, energy metabolism, and antioxidant defence. Manganese works alongside other minerals over time to support these processes.
Summary
Manganese is a trace mineral that contributes to normal bone formation, energy metabolism, and the protection of cells from oxidative stress. While needed in very small amounts, it plays essential roles in enzyme function throughout the body. Most people obtain adequate manganese from a varied diet rich in whole grains, nuts, and leafy greens.
FAQs
How much manganese do I need?
The adequate intake for adults is approximately 3 mg per day. Most people get sufficient manganese from dietary sources including whole grains, nuts, seeds, tea, and leafy vegetables.
Can manganese interact with iron absorption?
Yes, manganese and iron share some absorption pathways. Taking very high doses of either mineral may reduce absorption of the other. At normal supplemental doses, this interaction is not typically significant.
Research
Adepoju et al — Nutrients (2026). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu18050875
NIH ODS — Manganese Fact Sheet (2025). [Government reference]. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Manganese-HealthProfessional/
Ainyanbhor IE et al. – Journal of trace elements in medicine and biology : organ of the Society for Minerals and Trace Elements (GMS) (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40743625/
Jomova K et al. – Archives of toxicology (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39567405/
Devi et al — Cancer Causes Control (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-025-02041-z
Mandl et al — Prostate (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/pros.24903
Ajabi Ardehjani et al — Reprod Sci (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43032-025-01967-8
Zaitseva et al — J Neurol Sci (2025). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2025.123480
Wang et al — Nutr Res Rev (2025). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954422425100139
Khindri et al — Degener Neurol Neuromuscul Dis (2025). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.2147/DNND.S482018
Wang R et al. – Molecular nutrition & food research (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39440586/
Taskozhina G et al. – Journal of clinical medicine (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39200820/
Wróblewski M et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39273356/
Mapuskar et al — Redox Biol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2023.103022
Shi et al — J Trace Elem Med Biol (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2024.127520
Wang et al — Curr Neuropharmacol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X22666240530095721
Jones et al — Free Radic Biol Med (2024). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2024.03.008
Gupta et al — Plant Cell Rep (2024). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00299-024-03297-6
Li et al — Med Clin (Barc) (2024). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medcli.2024.04.022
Tuell DS et al. – Antioxidants (Basel, Switzerland) (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37371869/
Khan et al — Curr Environ Health Rep (2023). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-023-00409-4
Song et al — Microvasc Res (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mvr.2023.104502
Li et al — Environ Pollut (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120782
Grzeszczak et al — Biomolecules (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13121768
Martinez-Morata et al — Curr Environ Health Rep (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-023-00402-x
Čapek et al — Front Cell Infect Microbiol (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2023.943390
Donate-Correa et al — Antioxidants (Basel) (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12020239
Chen et al. — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2022). [Cross-sectional (NHANES)].
Jomova K et al. – Chemico-biological interactions (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36152810/
Abdelrahman MM et al. – Animals : an open access journal from MDPI (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36009706/
Gui et al — Sci Total Environ (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158673
Wu et al — Int J Neuropsychopharmacol (2022). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyab065
Nirooei et al — Biol Trace Elem Res (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-021-02621-5
Wong et al — Nutrients (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14040825
Studer et al — Anim Reprod Sci (2022). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2022.106924
Rondanelli et al. — Nat Prod Commun (2021). [Narrative review].
Keikha et al — Int Breastfeed J (2021). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13006-020-00354-0
Izydorczyk et al — Sci Total Environ (2021). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141983
Majidi et al — Phytomedicine (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2020.153417
McKeever et al — JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpen.2012
Batinic-Haberle et al — Oxid Med Cell Longev (2021). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6653790
He et al — Cardiovasc Toxicol (2021). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12012-020-09626-x
Rius-Pérez S et al. – Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32215168/
Talebi et al — Biol Trace Elem Res (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-019-01963-5
Pedro et al — Urolithiasis (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-020-01182-x
Jaffe et al — Clin Liver Dis (2020). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cld.2020.01.002
Erikson KM & Aschner M - Pharmacology & Therapeutics (2019). [Expert Review]. Safety
Mirnamniha M et al. – Reviews on environmental health (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31203261/
Gutiérrez-González et al — Environ Res (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.108787
Chen et al — Expert Rev Neurother (2019). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1080/14737175.2019.1581608
Li & Yang — Nutrients (MDPI review) (2018). [Systematic review]. MDPI Nutrients
Li L & Yang X - Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29737802/
Chen P et al. – Frontiers in bioscience (Landmark edition) (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29293455/
Li et al — Biol Trace Elem Res (2018). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-017-1105-0
Bevan R et al. – Neurotoxicology (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27519548/
Costa et al — Adv Neurobiol (2017). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60189-2_5
Peres TV et al. - International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (2016). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27898046/
Zeng X et al. – Chemosphere (2016). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26829309/
Stehle et al — Eur J Clin Nutr (2016). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2016.53
Parmalee et al — Neurotoxicology (2016). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2016.06.006
Chen P et al. - Journal of Neurochemistry (2015). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25711369/
García-Montalvo et al — Nutr Hosp (2015). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3305/nh.2015.32.1.9099
Grandjean et al — J Trace Elem Med Biol (2015). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2014.07.023
Claus Henn B et al. – Current opinion in pediatrics (2014). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24535499/
Kaur B et al. – Advances in food and nutrition research (2014). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24484939/
EFSA NDA Panel — EFSA Journal (2013). [Regulatory / Scientific Opinion]. Regulatory / Foundational
Pizent A et al. – Arhiv za higijenu rada i toksikologiju (2012). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22548851/
Fukai T et al. – Antioxidants & redox signaling (2011). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21473702/
Wirth JJ et al. – Systems biology in reproductive medicine (2010). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20377313/
Aschner & Aschner — Crit Rev Toxicol (2005). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16252996/
Aschner JL & Aschner M - Molecular Aspects of Medicine (2005). [Comprehensive Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16105678/
Crossgrove J et al. – NMR in biomedicine (2004). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15617053/
Zelko IN et al. – Free radical biology & medicine (2002). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12126755/
Branca F et al. – Public health nutrition (2001). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11255501/
Keen CL et al. - Neurotoxicology (2000). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10868510/
Penland & Johnson — Am J Clin Nutr (1993). [Controlled dietary study].
EFSA Panel — NDA Opinion (2009/2012). [Regulatory / Scientific Opinion]. EFSA Register
77 studies — Manganese
Adepoju et al — Nutrients (2026). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu18050875
NIH ODS — Manganese Fact Sheet (2025). [Government reference]. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Manganese-HealthProfessional/
Ainyanbhor IE et al. – Journal of trace elements in medicine and biology : organ of the Society for Minerals and Trace Elements (GMS) (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40743625/
Jomova K et al. – Archives of toxicology (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39567405/
Devi et al — Cancer Causes Control (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-025-02041-z
Mandl et al — Prostate (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/pros.24903
Ajabi Ardehjani et al — Reprod Sci (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43032-025-01967-8
Zaitseva et al — J Neurol Sci (2025). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2025.123480
Wang et al — Nutr Res Rev (2025). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954422425100139
Khindri et al — Degener Neurol Neuromuscul Dis (2025). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.2147/DNND.S482018
Wang R et al. – Molecular nutrition & food research (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39440586/
Taskozhina G et al. – Journal of clinical medicine (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39200820/
Wróblewski M et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39273356/
Mapuskar et al — Redox Biol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2023.103022
Shi et al — J Trace Elem Med Biol (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2024.127520
Wang et al — Curr Neuropharmacol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X22666240530095721
Jones et al — Free Radic Biol Med (2024). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2024.03.008
Gupta et al — Plant Cell Rep (2024). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00299-024-03297-6
Li et al — Med Clin (Barc) (2024). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medcli.2024.04.022
Tuell DS et al. – Antioxidants (Basel, Switzerland) (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37371869/
Khan et al — Curr Environ Health Rep (2023). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-023-00409-4
Song et al — Microvasc Res (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mvr.2023.104502
Li et al — Environ Pollut (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120782
Grzeszczak et al — Biomolecules (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13121768
Martinez-Morata et al — Curr Environ Health Rep (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-023-00402-x
Čapek et al — Front Cell Infect Microbiol (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2023.943390
Donate-Correa et al — Antioxidants (Basel) (2023). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12020239
Chen et al. — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2022). [Cross-sectional (NHANES)].
Jomova K et al. – Chemico-biological interactions (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36152810/
Abdelrahman MM et al. – Animals : an open access journal from MDPI (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36009706/
Gui et al — Sci Total Environ (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158673
Wu et al — Int J Neuropsychopharmacol (2022). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyab065
Nirooei et al — Biol Trace Elem Res (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-021-02621-5
Wong et al — Nutrients (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14040825
Studer et al — Anim Reprod Sci (2022). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2022.106924
Rondanelli et al. — Nat Prod Commun (2021). [Narrative review].
Keikha et al — Int Breastfeed J (2021). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13006-020-00354-0
Izydorczyk et al — Sci Total Environ (2021). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141983
Majidi et al — Phytomedicine (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2020.153417
McKeever et al — JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpen.2012
Batinic-Haberle et al — Oxid Med Cell Longev (2021). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6653790
He et al — Cardiovasc Toxicol (2021). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12012-020-09626-x
Rius-Pérez S et al. – Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32215168/
Talebi et al — Biol Trace Elem Res (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-019-01963-5
Pedro et al — Urolithiasis (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-020-01182-x
Jaffe et al — Clin Liver Dis (2020). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cld.2020.01.002
Erikson KM & Aschner M - Pharmacology & Therapeutics (2019). [Expert Review]. Safety
Mirnamniha M et al. – Reviews on environmental health (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31203261/
Gutiérrez-González et al — Environ Res (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.108787
Chen et al — Expert Rev Neurother (2019). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1080/14737175.2019.1581608
Li & Yang — Nutrients (MDPI review) (2018). [Systematic review]. MDPI Nutrients
Li L & Yang X - Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29737802/
Chen P et al. – Frontiers in bioscience (Landmark edition) (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29293455/
Li et al — Biol Trace Elem Res (2018). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-017-1105-0
Bevan R et al. – Neurotoxicology (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27519548/
Costa et al — Adv Neurobiol (2017). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60189-2_5
Peres TV et al. - International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (2016). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27898046/
Zeng X et al. – Chemosphere (2016). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26829309/
Stehle et al — Eur J Clin Nutr (2016). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2016.53
Parmalee et al — Neurotoxicology (2016). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2016.06.006
Chen P et al. - Journal of Neurochemistry (2015). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25711369/
García-Montalvo et al — Nutr Hosp (2015). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3305/nh.2015.32.1.9099
Grandjean et al — J Trace Elem Med Biol (2015). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2014.07.023
Claus Henn B et al. – Current opinion in pediatrics (2014). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24535499/
Kaur B et al. – Advances in food and nutrition research (2014). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24484939/
EFSA NDA Panel — EFSA Journal (2013). [Regulatory / Scientific Opinion]. Regulatory / Foundational
Pizent A et al. – Arhiv za higijenu rada i toksikologiju (2012). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22548851/
Fukai T et al. – Antioxidants & redox signaling (2011). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21473702/
Wirth JJ et al. – Systems biology in reproductive medicine (2010). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20377313/
Aschner & Aschner — Crit Rev Toxicol (2005). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16252996/
Aschner JL & Aschner M - Molecular Aspects of Medicine (2005). [Comprehensive Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16105678/
Crossgrove J et al. – NMR in biomedicine (2004). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15617053/
Zelko IN et al. – Free radical biology & medicine (2002). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12126755/
Branca F et al. – Public health nutrition (2001). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11255501/
Keen CL et al. - Neurotoxicology (2000). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10868510/
Penland & Johnson — Am J Clin Nutr (1993). [Controlled dietary study].
EFSA Panel — NDA Opinion (2009/2012). [Regulatory / Scientific Opinion]. EFSA Register
The Benefits of Inositol
Inositol
Natural form
Myo-Inositol is a naturally occurring compound that the body produces and that is found in many foods. It functions as a secondary messenger in insulin signalling pathways and plays a role in cellular communication. Research has focused particularly on its potential benefits for hormonal balance, insulin sensitivity, and reproductive health, especially in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
Key Highlights
- Supports insulin sensitivity by acting as secondary messenger in insulin signalling
- May improve menstrual cycle regularity in women with PCOS
- Comparable efficacy to metformin for insulin sensitivity (SOGC, 2025)
- Better tolerated than metformin (fewer GI side effects)
- May support oocyte quality and IVF outcomes
- Typical dose: 4 g/day (4,000 mg/day)
Biochemistry Timeline
Myo-inositol supplementation typically requires 3 to 6 months for meaningful effects on hormonal parameters and menstrual regularity. Improvements in insulin sensitivity may begin within 4 to 8 weeks, but cycle-related benefits often take longer.
The typical studied dose is 4 g/day (4,000 mg/day), usually taken in two divided doses with meals. Inositol is water-soluble and well-absorbed, and is often combined with folic acid in formulations designed for women's hormonal health.
Mood and Anxiety Support
Inositol has been studied for its potential effects on mood and anxiety. It is involved in the signalling pathways of several neurotransmitters, including serotonin, and research has explored its use at higher doses (up to 12-18 g/day) for mood and anxiety support.
While the evidence for mood support is still developing and the doses studied are much higher than those used for metabolic health, it highlights inositol's role in brain chemistry. At standard supplementation doses (4 g/day), any mood benefits are likely modest but may contribute to overall well-being, particularly when hormonal balance improves.
Metabolic Health
Beyond insulin sensitivity, myo-inositol may support broader metabolic health markers. The Fitz et al. (2024) review of PCOS international guidelines noted evidence for benefits on "some metabolic measures," including glucose metabolism and lipid profiles.
For women with PCOS or insulin resistance, supporting metabolic health is important not just for current symptoms but for long-term health outcomes, as insulin resistance is associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Myo-inositol offers a supportive tool alongside diet, exercise, and medical management.
Summary
Myo-Inositol is a naturally occurring compound that supports insulin signalling and may benefit women with PCOS by improving insulin sensitivity, menstrual regularity, and potentially fertility outcomes. At 4 g/day, it shows comparable efficacy to metformin for insulin sensitivity, with fewer side effects.
We value honesty about the evidence: while promising, myo-inositol is not yet recommended in international guidelines for fertility in PCOS, and the evidence base has limitations. It works best as a supportive supplement within a comprehensive approach to hormonal health, guided by healthcare professionals. Benefits typically develop over 3 to 6 months of consistent use.
FAQs
How much myo-inositol should I take?
The most commonly studied dose is 4 g/day (4,000 mg/day), usually divided into two doses taken with meals. This is the dose recognised by the SOGC for insulin sensitivity and menstrual regularity benefits.
Is myo-inositol only for women with PCOS?
While most research focuses on PCOS, myo-inositol is a naturally occurring compound in the body and may support insulin sensitivity in anyone with metabolic concerns. However, the strongest evidence is in the context of PCOS.
What is the difference between myo-inositol and D-chiro-inositol?
Both are forms of inositol with different roles in the body. Myo-inositol is the most abundant and well-studied form. D-chiro-inositol supports insulin signalling in different tissues. The optimal ratio of MI:DCI is generally considered to be 40:1, which reflects the natural ratio in the body.
How long before I see results?
Insulin sensitivity improvements may begin within 4 to 8 weeks. Menstrual regularity and hormonal changes typically require 3 to 6 months. Patience and consistency are important.
Is myo-inositol safe during pregnancy?
Research has explored myo-inositol during pregnancy, particularly for gestational diabetes prevention. It is generally considered safe, but consult your healthcare provider for personalised guidance.
Research
Soto Jacome C et al. – The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2026). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41225692/
Mashhadi et al — J Ovarian Res (2026). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13048-025-01867-0
Zhang et al. - MI in IVF outcomes SR/MA (2025). [Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis (RCTs)]. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/endocrinology/articles/10.3389/fendo.2025.1520362/full
SOGC Position Statement - Inositol for PCOS (2025). [Clinical Position Statement (literature review to Oct 2024)]. https://sogc.org/
Palomba et al. - MI in reproductive management critical review (2025). [Critical Review]. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1472648325004766
Akbari Sene et al. — Int J Reprod BioMed (2025). [Systematic review & MA of RCTs]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12413536/
Zhang et al. — Front Endocrinol (2025). [Systematic review & MA (RCTs)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11968372/
Inositol cardiometabolic MA — PMC (2025). [Systematic review & MA (GRADE-assessed)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12574088/
Gul M et al. – Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's archives of pharmacology (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39847053/
Ozay OE et al. – Ginekologia polska (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40665752/
Maddock RJ et al. – Molecular psychiatry (2025). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40913113/
Yazdanpanah et al — Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00210-024-03745-w
Fitz et al. - PCOS International Guidelines SR/MA (2024). [Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis (30 RCTs, n=2,230)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38163998/
Li C et al. – Archives of gynecology and obstetrics (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37308791/
Chen H et al. – The journal of maternal-fetal & neonatal medicine : the official journal of the European Association of Perinatal Medicine, the Federation of Asia and Oceania Perinatal Societies, the International Society of Perinatal Obstetricians (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39115013/
Yavari M et al. – Expert review of endocrinology & metabolism (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38147023/
Razavi SA et al. – Cancer medicine (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38646957/
Komorowski et al — Fertil Steril (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2023.12.031
Andavar et al — Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2024.07.001
Motuhifonua SK et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36790138/
Fatima K et al. – Irish journal of medical science (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37148410/
Greff D et al. – Nutrients (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37836508/
Nazirudeen et al — Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/cen.14931
Jethaliya H et al. – Reproductive sciences (Thousand Oaks, Calif.) (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35477841/
Zhang JQ et al. – European review for medical and pharmacological sciences (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35363325/
Kachhawa G et al. – International journal of gynaecology and obstetrics: the official organ of the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34624138/
Li L et al. – European journal of obstetrics, gynecology, and reproductive biology (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35460931/
Liu Q et al. – Gynecological endocrinology : the official journal of the International Society of Gynecological Endocrinology (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35575290/
Wei J et al. – Nutrients (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35889788/
Tang Q et al. – Medicine (2022). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35475799/
Rajasekaran et al — Gynecol Endocrinol (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590.2021.1981282
Regidor et al. — Front Endocrinol (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33790860/
Zhao H et al. – Reproductive health (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34407851/
Azizi Kutenaei M et al. – European review for medical and pharmacological sciences (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33877679/
Chan KY et al. – Archives of gynecology and obstetrics (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33745021/
Pkhaladze et al — Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_202112_27447
Bezerra Espinola et al — Gynecol Endocrinol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590.2020.1760820
Prabhakar et al — Gynecol Endocrinol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590.2020.1810657
Facchinetti et al. — Gynecol Endocrinol (2020). [Expert consensus]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31553240/
Showell MG et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32851663/
Griffith RJ et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2020). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32526091/
Nazari et al — J Gynecol Obstet Hum Reprod (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jogoh.2020.101698
Cirillo et al — Gynecol Endocrinol (2020). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590.2020.1725967
Nordio M et al. – European review for medical and pharmacological sciences (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31298405/
Mendoza N et al. – Gynecological endocrinology : the official journal of the International Society of Gynecological Endocrinology (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30880505/
Pourghasem et al — Arch Gynecol Obstet (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00404-019-05064-5
Agrawal et al — Gynecol Endocrinol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590.2018.1549656
Laganà AS et al. – Archives of gynecology and obstetrics (2018). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30078122/
Montanino Oliva et al — J Ovarian Res (2018). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13048-018-0411-2
Unfer et al. - MI effects in PCOS women MA (2017). [Meta-Analysis (9 RCTs, n=496)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5655679/
Unfer et al. — Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28537652/
Nordio M et al. – European review for medical and pharmacological sciences (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28724185/
Fruzzetti et al — Gynecol Endocrinol (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590.2016.1236078
Rolland et al — Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci (2017). [Clinical Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28724178/
Emekçi Özay et al — Gynecol Endocrinol (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590.2017.1296127
Unfer et al. — RBMO (2016). [Review].
Mukai T et al. – Human psychopharmacology (2014). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24424706/
Colazingari S et al. – Archives of gynecology and obstetrics (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23708322/
Nordio M et al. – European review for medical and pharmacological sciences (2012). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22774396/
Papaleo E et al. – Fertility and sterility (2009). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18462730/
Palatnik A et al. – Journal of clinical psychopharmacology (2001). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11386498/
Benjamin J et al. – Journal of psychiatric research (1997). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9352475/
62 studies — Inositol
Soto Jacome C et al. – The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2026). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41225692/
Mashhadi et al — J Ovarian Res (2026). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13048-025-01867-0
Zhang et al. - MI in IVF outcomes SR/MA (2025). [Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis (RCTs)]. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/endocrinology/articles/10.3389/fendo.2025.1520362/full
SOGC Position Statement - Inositol for PCOS (2025). [Clinical Position Statement (literature review to Oct 2024)]. https://sogc.org/
Palomba et al. - MI in reproductive management critical review (2025). [Critical Review]. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1472648325004766
Akbari Sene et al. — Int J Reprod BioMed (2025). [Systematic review & MA of RCTs]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12413536/
Zhang et al. — Front Endocrinol (2025). [Systematic review & MA (RCTs)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11968372/
Inositol cardiometabolic MA — PMC (2025). [Systematic review & MA (GRADE-assessed)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12574088/
Gul M et al. – Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's archives of pharmacology (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39847053/
Ozay OE et al. – Ginekologia polska (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40665752/
Maddock RJ et al. – Molecular psychiatry (2025). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40913113/
Yazdanpanah et al — Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00210-024-03745-w
Fitz et al. - PCOS International Guidelines SR/MA (2024). [Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis (30 RCTs, n=2,230)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38163998/
Li C et al. – Archives of gynecology and obstetrics (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37308791/
Chen H et al. – The journal of maternal-fetal & neonatal medicine : the official journal of the European Association of Perinatal Medicine, the Federation of Asia and Oceania Perinatal Societies, the International Society of Perinatal Obstetricians (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39115013/
Yavari M et al. – Expert review of endocrinology & metabolism (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38147023/
Razavi SA et al. – Cancer medicine (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38646957/
Komorowski et al — Fertil Steril (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2023.12.031
Andavar et al — Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2024.07.001
Motuhifonua SK et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36790138/
Fatima K et al. – Irish journal of medical science (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37148410/
Greff D et al. – Nutrients (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37836508/
Nazirudeen et al — Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/cen.14931
Jethaliya H et al. – Reproductive sciences (Thousand Oaks, Calif.) (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35477841/
Zhang JQ et al. – European review for medical and pharmacological sciences (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35363325/
Kachhawa G et al. – International journal of gynaecology and obstetrics: the official organ of the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34624138/
Li L et al. – European journal of obstetrics, gynecology, and reproductive biology (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35460931/
Liu Q et al. – Gynecological endocrinology : the official journal of the International Society of Gynecological Endocrinology (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35575290/
Wei J et al. – Nutrients (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35889788/
Tang Q et al. – Medicine (2022). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35475799/
Rajasekaran et al — Gynecol Endocrinol (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590.2021.1981282
Regidor et al. — Front Endocrinol (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33790860/
Zhao H et al. – Reproductive health (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34407851/
Azizi Kutenaei M et al. – European review for medical and pharmacological sciences (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33877679/
Chan KY et al. – Archives of gynecology and obstetrics (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33745021/
Pkhaladze et al — Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_202112_27447
Bezerra Espinola et al — Gynecol Endocrinol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590.2020.1760820
Prabhakar et al — Gynecol Endocrinol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590.2020.1810657
Facchinetti et al. — Gynecol Endocrinol (2020). [Expert consensus]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31553240/
Showell MG et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32851663/
Griffith RJ et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2020). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32526091/
Nazari et al — J Gynecol Obstet Hum Reprod (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jogoh.2020.101698
Cirillo et al — Gynecol Endocrinol (2020). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590.2020.1725967
Nordio M et al. – European review for medical and pharmacological sciences (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31298405/
Mendoza N et al. – Gynecological endocrinology : the official journal of the International Society of Gynecological Endocrinology (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30880505/
Pourghasem et al — Arch Gynecol Obstet (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00404-019-05064-5
Agrawal et al — Gynecol Endocrinol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590.2018.1549656
Laganà AS et al. – Archives of gynecology and obstetrics (2018). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30078122/
Montanino Oliva et al — J Ovarian Res (2018). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13048-018-0411-2
Unfer et al. - MI effects in PCOS women MA (2017). [Meta-Analysis (9 RCTs, n=496)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5655679/
Unfer et al. — Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28537652/
Nordio M et al. – European review for medical and pharmacological sciences (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28724185/
Fruzzetti et al — Gynecol Endocrinol (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590.2016.1236078
Rolland et al — Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci (2017). [Clinical Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28724178/
Emekçi Özay et al — Gynecol Endocrinol (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590.2017.1296127
Unfer et al. — RBMO (2016). [Review].
Mukai T et al. – Human psychopharmacology (2014). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24424706/
Colazingari S et al. – Archives of gynecology and obstetrics (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23708322/
Nordio M et al. – European review for medical and pharmacological sciences (2012). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22774396/
Papaleo E et al. – Fertility and sterility (2009). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18462730/
Palatnik A et al. – Journal of clinical psychopharmacology (2001). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11386498/
Benjamin J et al. – Journal of psychiatric research (1997). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9352475/
The Benefits of Iodine
Iodine
Bioavailable Form
We use Potassium Iodine, a stable and well-absorbed form of iodine, this is an essential mineral for normal thyroid function and hormone production.
Key Highlights
- Essential for normal thyroid function (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal cognitive function
- Supports normal energy-yielding metabolism
- Important during pregnancy for fetal development
Biochemistry Timeline
Iodine is rapidly absorbed in the stomach and upper small intestine. Your thyroid gland actively concentrates iodine to produce thyroid hormones T3 and T4, which regulate metabolism throughout the body. While iodine absorption happens quickly, the downstream effects on thyroid function and energy levels develop over weeks as hormone levels stabilize.
Summary
Iodine is essential for thyroid hormone production, which in turn influences nearly every cell in your body. In Nordic regions, where iodine-rich seafood may not be a daily staple, maintaining adequate intake is particularly relevant. Iodine contributes to normal cognitive function, energy metabolism, and healthy skin.
FAQs
How common is iodine deficiency?
Iodine deficiency remains a concern in parts of Europe, including some Scandinavian populations. Denmark introduced iodine fortification of salt in 2000, which has improved population iodine status, but some individuals may still benefit from ensuring adequate intake.
Can I get enough iodine from food alone?
Good dietary sources include fish, shellfish, dairy products, eggs, and iodized salt. Seaweed is also rich in iodine but varies widely in content. If your diet is limited in these foods, supplementation may be helpful.
Is it possible to take too much iodine?
Yes, excessive iodine can paradoxically impair thyroid function. The European tolerable upper intake level for adults is 600 micrograms per day. Most supplements provide amounts well within safe limits.
Research
Zugravu CA et al. – Geriatrics (Basel, Switzerland) (2026). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41718360/
Adugna YM et al. – BMC public health (2026). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41527070/
Mazur M et al. – Pathophysiology : the official journal of the International Society for Pathophysiology (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40843807/
Chen et al — Eur J Radiol (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrad.2025.111949
Favara G et al. – Nutrients (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39796495/
Gierach M et al. – Endokrynologia Polska (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38923898/
Huang S et al. – Antioxidants (Basel, Switzerland) (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39061936/
Liu L et al. – Frontiers in nutrition (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38757132/
Sohn SY et al. – Endocrine reviews (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38870258/
Baffa LD et al. – Systematic reviews (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38816755/
Gomersall et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012155.pub3
Lisco et al — Endocrine (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-023-03679-y
Geenen et al — Eur Radiol (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-024-10707-6
Leonard et al — Am J Clin Nutr (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajcnut.2024.01.014
Tattersall et al — Food Chem (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.140388
Falize et al — Br J Nutr (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114523002775
Casey et al — Am J Perinatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0043-1778037
Robinette et al — Br J Nutr (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114524001132
Keestra et al — Hum Reprod (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/deae183
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The Benefits of Iron
Iron
Bioavailable Form
Iron is an essential mineral that plays a central role in oxygen transport, energy production, and immune function. It is a key component of haemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to every cell in the body. Iron deficiency is one of the most common nutritional deficiencies worldwide, particularly among women of reproductive age.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to normal formation of red blood cells and haemoglobin (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal oxygen transport in the body (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Supports the reduction of tiredness and fatigue (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal function of the immune system (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal cognitive function (EFSA approved)
- Particularly important for women of reproductive age
Biochemistry Timeline
Iron supplementation typically takes 4 to 12 weeks to replenish depleted stores, depending on the severity of deficiency and the dose used. Improvements in fatigue and energy may be noticed within 2 to 4 weeks, while normalisation of ferritin levels (the body's iron storage marker) often takes 3 months or longer.
Iron is best absorbed on an empty stomach, but if this causes digestive discomfort, taking it with a small amount of food (ideally with vitamin C, which enhances absorption) is a practical alternative. Avoid taking iron alongside calcium, tea, or coffee, as these can reduce absorption.
Hair Health
Iron deficiency is one of the most well-established nutritional causes of hair loss. Hair follicles are among the fastest-dividing cells in the body and are sensitive to nutritional status.
Research by Nagendran & Sakkaravarthi (2024) confirmed that iron deficiency is the most established cause of nutritional hair loss, with a ferritin level below 30 µg/L identified as a key threshold. A broader review (Wang et al., 2024) highlighted iron, zinc, vitamin D, and B vitamins as the most critical nutrients for hair health.
Supplementation has been shown to improve hair outcomes when iron deficiency is present. If you are experiencing hair thinning or increased shedding, checking your iron and ferritin levels is a sensible first step.
Cognitive Function
Iron is essential for normal cognitive function. The brain requires a consistent supply of oxygen, delivered via iron-containing haemoglobin, to function at its best. Iron also plays a role in neurotransmitter synthesis, including dopamine, which is important for focus, motivation, and mental clarity.
Low iron status has been associated with impaired concentration, reduced memory performance, and slower processing speed. These cognitive effects can occur even before anaemia develops, underscoring the importance of maintaining adequate iron stores.
EFSA recognises that iron contributes to normal cognitive function. For women, students, and anyone experiencing brain fog or difficulty concentrating, iron status is worth investigating.
Summary
Iron is essential for oxygen transport, energy production, immune function, and cognitive health. Iron deficiency is one of the most common nutritional deficiencies worldwide, particularly among women of reproductive age, and can cause fatigue, poor concentration, and hair loss even before full anaemia develops.
Supplementation is effective for replenishing depleted stores, with benefits typically noticeable within 2 to 4 weeks and full repletion taking 3 months or more. Iron is best absorbed with vitamin C and away from calcium, tea, or coffee.
FAQs
How do I know if I need iron supplementation?
Common signs of low iron include persistent fatigue, weakness, pale skin, cold hands and feet, brittle nails, hair thinning, and difficulty concentrating. A simple blood test measuring ferritin (iron storage) and haemoglobin can confirm whether supplementation is appropriate.
What ferritin level indicates a need for supplementation?
While laboratories often set the "normal" range from 12 µg/L upwards, many clinicians consider levels below 30 µg/L as insufficient for optimal health, particularly for hair, energy, and exercise performance. Discuss your results with your healthcare provider.
Can iron supplementation cause side effects?
Some people experience digestive discomfort, constipation, or nausea with iron supplements. Taking iron with a small amount of food or choosing a gentle form (such as iron bisglycinate) can help minimise these effects. Starting with a lower dose and gradually increasing can also improve tolerance.
Can I take too much iron?
Yes, excessive iron intake can be harmful. Iron is one of the few minerals where the body has no active excretion mechanism, so it can accumulate. Supplementation should be guided by blood test results, and it is not recommended to take high-dose iron without medical supervision.
Is iron safe during pregnancy?
Iron supplementation is commonly recommended during pregnancy, as iron needs increase significantly to support the growing baby and increased blood volume. Without supplementation, 28-85% of pregnant women may become iron deficient by the third trimester (Milman, 2017). Always follow your healthcare provider's guidance on dosage.
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251 studies — Iron
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Trenkwalder et al — Neurology (2016). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000002542
Elalfy et al — Eur J Haematol (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejh.12594
Tolkien et al. — PLoS One (2015). [Meta-analysis (43 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26444285/
Peña-Rosas JP et al. - Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2015). [Cochrane Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26198451/
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Malkud S – Journal of clinical and diagnostic research : JCDR (2015). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26500992/
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Högl et al — Mov Disord (2015). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.26381
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Cepeda-Lopez et al — Am J Clin Nutr (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.099218
Egbi et al — Food Nutr Bull (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/0379572115596253
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Iron deficiency in infants and young children. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4235202/
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The Benefits of Kale
Kale
Kale is a nutrient-dense leafy green that provides an impressive array of vitamins and minerals including vitamin K, vitamin C, vitamin A (as beta-carotene), calcium, iron, and potent antioxidants including lutein and zeaxanthin. It is one of the most nutritionally concentrated vegetables available.
Key Highlights
- Exceptionally rich in vitamin K (supports bone health and blood clotting)
- Good source of vitamin C, vitamin A, calcium, and iron
- Contains lutein and zeaxanthin (eye health antioxidants)
- One of the most nutrient-dense foods available
- Rich in fibre and plant-based antioxidants
Biochemistry Timeline
Kale is rich in vitamins K, C, and A, along with minerals like calcium and iron. These nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine. The glucosinolates in kale are converted by gut bacteria into biologically active compounds. Vitamin K from kale is fat-soluble and best absorbed alongside dietary fats.
Summary
Kale is a nutritional powerhouse providing vitamins K, C, and A alongside calcium, iron, and antioxidants. As a functional ingredient, it contributes concentrated plant-based nutrition to our formulations.
FAQs
Why is kale considered a superfood?
Kale is exceptionally nutrient-dense, providing high levels of vitamins K, C, and A, plus calcium, iron, and powerful antioxidants like kaempferol and quercetin, all in a very low-calorie package.
Should people on blood thinners be cautious with kale?
Yes. Kale is very high in vitamin K, which plays a role in blood clotting. If you take anticoagulant medications like warfarin, consult your healthcare provider about your vitamin K intake.
Research
Katayama S — Yakugaku Zasshi (2025). [Review + preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39756921/
Aldisi D et al. — Front Nutr (2024). [Cross-over trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39114118/
Rachwał K et al. — Molecules (2023). [In vitro]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37836781/
Kappler K et al. — Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol (2022). [Clinical + in vitro]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36199383/
Mrowicka M et al. — Nutrients (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35215476/
Raychaudhuri S et al. — PLoS One (2021). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34432833/
Nutritional profile — USDA/established (Established). [Nutritional data].
Glucosinolate content — established (Established). [Nutritional science].
Kaempferol content — established (Established). [Phytochemistry].
Calcium bioavailability — established (Established). [Nutritional science].
Vitamin K content — established (Established). [USDA data].
ANDI score — established (Established). [Nutritional ranking].
12 studies — Kale
Katayama S — Yakugaku Zasshi (2025). [Review + preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39756921/
Aldisi D et al. — Front Nutr (2024). [Cross-over trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39114118/
Rachwał K et al. — Molecules (2023). [In vitro]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37836781/
Kappler K et al. — Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol (2022). [Clinical + in vitro]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36199383/
Mrowicka M et al. — Nutrients (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35215476/
Raychaudhuri S et al. — PLoS One (2021). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34432833/
Nutritional profile — USDA/established (Established). [Nutritional data].
Glucosinolate content — established (Established). [Nutritional science].
Kaempferol content — established (Established). [Phytochemistry].
Calcium bioavailability — established (Established). [Nutritional science].
Vitamin K content — established (Established). [USDA data].
ANDI score — established (Established). [Nutritional ranking].
The Benefits of L-Tryptophan
L-Tryptophan
Free Form
L-Tryptophan is an essential amino acid that serves as a precursor to serotonin (the "feel-good" neurotransmitter) and melatonin (the sleep hormone). The body cannot produce tryptophan on its own, so it must come from diet or supplementation. It supports mood regulation, sleep quality, and emotional well-being through the serotonin-melatonin pathway.
Key Highlights
- Essential amino acid and precursor to serotonin and melatonin
- Supports natural sleep quality through melatonin pathway
- Supports mood regulation through serotonin production
- Non-sedating, works with the body's own biochemistry
- Cannot be produced by the body; must come from diet or supplements
- Found in protein-rich foods like turkey, eggs, fish, and nuts
Biochemistry Timeline
L-Tryptophan supplementation can begin to influence mood and relaxation within 1 to 2 weeks. Sleep benefits may be noticed within the first week, particularly when taken in the evening. Full benefits for mood regulation typically develop over 2 to 4 weeks of consistent use.
Tryptophan is best taken on a partially empty stomach or with a small carbohydrate-containing snack, as carbohydrates help tryptophan cross the blood-brain barrier more efficiently by reducing competition from other amino acids.
Appetite and Satiety
Serotonin also plays a role in appetite regulation. It helps signal satiety (the feeling of fullness), which is why tryptophan has been studied in the context of appetite management and healthy eating patterns.
By supporting balanced serotonin levels, tryptophan may help reduce cravings and emotional eating, particularly in the evening when serotonin levels naturally decline. This is a supportive benefit rather than a weight management solution, and works best alongside balanced nutrition and regular activity.
Niacin Production
Beyond the serotonin pathway, tryptophan is also converted to niacin (vitamin B3) and NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), which are essential for cellular energy production. This secondary pathway ensures that tryptophan supports both mental well-being and physical energy at the cellular level.
Approximately 60 mg of tryptophan can produce 1 mg of niacin, making it a meaningful contributor to the body's niacin needs. This dual functionality highlights tryptophan's versatility as a nutrient.
Summary
L-Tryptophan is an essential amino acid that supports mood, sleep, and emotional well-being through its conversion to serotonin and melatonin. It works with the body's own biochemistry rather than acting as a sedative, offering a gentle approach to sleep and mood support.
Supplementation can show benefits within 1 to 2 weeks, with full mood-regulating effects developing over 2 to 4 weeks. It is best taken in the evening for sleep support, and works alongside good sleep habits and a balanced diet for optimal results.
FAQs
When should I take L-Tryptophan?
For sleep support, take tryptophan 30-60 minutes before bedtime. For mood support, it can be taken at any time. Taking it with a small amount of carbohydrate (like fruit) and away from high-protein meals can improve brain uptake.
Is L-Tryptophan the same as 5-HTP?
No. Tryptophan is the amino acid precursor, while 5-HTP (5-hydroxytryptophan) is the intermediate step between tryptophan and serotonin. Both support serotonin production, but through different points in the pathway. Tryptophan has a broader range of uses since it also produces niacin.
Can I take L-Tryptophan with antidepressants?
Exercise caution. Because both tryptophan and many antidepressants increase serotonin levels, combining them can potentially lead to excess serotonin (serotonin syndrome). Always consult your healthcare provider before combining tryptophan with antidepressant medication.
Are there any side effects?
L-Tryptophan is generally well-tolerated at recommended doses. Mild side effects can include drowsiness (which may actually be beneficial if taken for sleep), nausea, or headache. Start with a lower dose to assess tolerance.
Is L-Tryptophan safe during pregnancy?
L-Tryptophan is found naturally in protein-rich foods and is part of a normal diet during pregnancy. However, supplemental doses should be discussed with your healthcare provider, as the effects on serotonin pathways during pregnancy are not fully established.
Research
Tu et al — Clin Mol Hepatol (2026). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3350/cmh.2025.0577
Zerón-Rugerio MF et al. — Food Funct (2025). [Clinical study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40791136/
Barnard J et al. – International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39832504/
Soon CS et al. – European journal of nutrition (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40072601/
Bhattacharyya et al — J Affect Disord (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.01.064
Alizadeh Pahlavani H – Behavioural brain research (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38048912/
Wang et al — J Affect Disord (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.01.053
Pages-García et al — Depress Anxiety (2024). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/3661412
Sutanto et al — Clin Nutr (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2024.01.010
Liu et al — Am J Gastroenterol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.14309/ajg.0000000000003257
Suktas et al — BMC Psychiatry (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-06195-z
Ko SM et al. – Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37453474/
Huang Y et al. – Aging and disease (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37191427/
Moncrieff et al — Mol Psychiatry (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-022-01661-0
Sales et al — Brain Res (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2022.148190
Sutanto CN et al. — Nutr Rev (2022). [SR + meta-analysis + meta-regression]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33942088/
Ferguson C et al. – International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34875624/
Davidson M et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36077360/
Correia AS et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35955633/
Tian et al — Brain Behav Immun (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2021.11.023
Stone et al — J Sports Med Phys Fitness (2022). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0022-4707.21.12134-6
Roth W et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33804088/
Kikuchi AM et al. — J Diet Suppl (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32272859/
Hebbrecht et al — Front Immunol (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.667179
Pu et al — Mol Psychiatry (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-0645-4
Halson SL et al. – Nutrients (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32854375/
Gao K et al. – Advances in nutrition (Bethesda, Md.) (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31825083/
Maffei ME – International journal of molecular sciences (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33375373/
Simper T et al. – Nutrition and health (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31512550/
Kałużna-Czaplińska J et al. – Critical reviews in food science and nutrition (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28799778/
Kazemi et al — Clin Nutr (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2018.04.010
Rudzki et al — Psychoneuroendocrinology (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.10.010
Carneiro IBC et al. — Eur J Pharmacol (2018). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30098308/
Chojnacki et al — Molecules (2018). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23020272
Kennedy PJ et al. – Neuropharmacology (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27392632/
Oketch-Rabah HA et al. – The Journal of nutrition (2016). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27934657/
Gao et al — Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet (2016). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.32381
Sarris et al — Am J Psychiatry (2016). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.15091228
Chang et al — Transl Psychiatry (2016). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2016.165
Mohajeri MH et al. – The British journal of nutrition (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25572038/
Schwarcz R et al. – Nature reviews. Neuroscience (2012). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22678511/
Carhart-Harris RL et al. – Psychopharmacology (2009). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19585107/
Turner EH et al. – Pharmacology & therapeutics (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16023217/
Smith MJ et al. – Inflammation research : official journal of the European Histamine Research Society ... [et al.] (2005). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16307217/
Das YT et al. – Toxicology letters (2004). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068828/
Shaw K et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2002). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11869656/
Arnulf I et al. – Neuropsychopharmacology : official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology (2002). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12431858/
Shaw K et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2001). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11687048/
Aldridge WN – Toxicology letters (1992). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1471212/
Lehnert H et al. – Neuropsychobiology (1989). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2693995/
George CF et al. – Sleep (1989). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2669092/
51 studies — L-Tryptophan
Tu et al — Clin Mol Hepatol (2026). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3350/cmh.2025.0577
Zerón-Rugerio MF et al. — Food Funct (2025). [Clinical study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40791136/
Barnard J et al. – International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39832504/
Soon CS et al. – European journal of nutrition (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40072601/
Bhattacharyya et al — J Affect Disord (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.01.064
Alizadeh Pahlavani H – Behavioural brain research (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38048912/
Wang et al — J Affect Disord (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.01.053
Pages-García et al — Depress Anxiety (2024). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/3661412
Sutanto et al — Clin Nutr (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2024.01.010
Liu et al — Am J Gastroenterol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.14309/ajg.0000000000003257
Suktas et al — BMC Psychiatry (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-06195-z
Ko SM et al. – Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37453474/
Huang Y et al. – Aging and disease (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37191427/
Moncrieff et al — Mol Psychiatry (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-022-01661-0
Sales et al — Brain Res (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2022.148190
Sutanto CN et al. — Nutr Rev (2022). [SR + meta-analysis + meta-regression]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33942088/
Ferguson C et al. – International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34875624/
Davidson M et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36077360/
Correia AS et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35955633/
Tian et al — Brain Behav Immun (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2021.11.023
Stone et al — J Sports Med Phys Fitness (2022). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0022-4707.21.12134-6
Roth W et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33804088/
Kikuchi AM et al. — J Diet Suppl (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32272859/
Hebbrecht et al — Front Immunol (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.667179
Pu et al — Mol Psychiatry (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-0645-4
Halson SL et al. – Nutrients (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32854375/
Gao K et al. – Advances in nutrition (Bethesda, Md.) (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31825083/
Maffei ME – International journal of molecular sciences (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33375373/
Simper T et al. – Nutrition and health (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31512550/
Kałużna-Czaplińska J et al. – Critical reviews in food science and nutrition (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28799778/
Kazemi et al — Clin Nutr (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2018.04.010
Rudzki et al — Psychoneuroendocrinology (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.10.010
Carneiro IBC et al. — Eur J Pharmacol (2018). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30098308/
Chojnacki et al — Molecules (2018). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23020272
Kennedy PJ et al. – Neuropharmacology (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27392632/
Oketch-Rabah HA et al. – The Journal of nutrition (2016). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27934657/
Gao et al — Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet (2016). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.32381
Sarris et al — Am J Psychiatry (2016). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.15091228
Chang et al — Transl Psychiatry (2016). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2016.165
Mohajeri MH et al. – The British journal of nutrition (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25572038/
Schwarcz R et al. – Nature reviews. Neuroscience (2012). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22678511/
Carhart-Harris RL et al. – Psychopharmacology (2009). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19585107/
Turner EH et al. – Pharmacology & therapeutics (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16023217/
Smith MJ et al. – Inflammation research : official journal of the European Histamine Research Society ... [et al.] (2005). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16307217/
Das YT et al. – Toxicology letters (2004). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068828/
Shaw K et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2002). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11869656/
Arnulf I et al. – Neuropsychopharmacology : official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology (2002). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12431858/
Shaw K et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2001). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11687048/
Aldridge WN – Toxicology letters (1992). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1471212/
Lehnert H et al. – Neuropsychobiology (1989). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2693995/
George CF et al. – Sleep (1989). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2669092/
The Benefits of L-Tyrosine
L-Tyrosine
Free-form
L-Tyrosine is a non-essential amino acid that serves as a precursor to dopamine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline, the catecholamine neurotransmitters responsible for motivation, focus, alertness, and the stress response. It is particularly valued for supporting cognitive function under demanding conditions.
Key Highlights
- Precursor to dopamine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline
- Promotes cognitive flexibility under demanding conditions (meta-analysis)
- Supports working memory during stress and sleep deprivation
- Benefits most pronounced when cognitive resources are depleted
- Supports focus, motivation, and mental clarity through dopamine pathway
- Found in protein-rich foods: cheese, poultry, fish, eggs
Biochemistry Timeline
L-Tyrosine is quickly absorbed and can begin to influence catecholamine availability within 1 to 2 hours of ingestion. For ongoing stress support, daily supplementation maintains a consistent supply of precursors. Typical doses are 500-2,000 mg per day, taken in the morning or before periods of high cognitive demand.
Thyroid Hormone Production
Tyrosine is a component of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4). The thyroid gland combines tyrosine with iodine to produce these hormones, which regulate metabolism throughout the body. While tyrosine supplementation is not a treatment for thyroid conditions, adequate tyrosine availability supports normal thyroid hormone synthesis.
Mood Support
Through its role in dopamine production, tyrosine may support mood and motivation. Dopamine is associated with feelings of pleasure, reward, and drive. For those experiencing stress-related mood dips, tyrosine provides the biochemical building blocks the brain needs to maintain balanced mood chemistry.
Summary
L-Tyrosine is a catecholamine precursor that supports cognitive function, focus, and stress resilience. Research shows its greatest benefits during demanding conditions, when catecholamine stores are depleted. It also supports thyroid hormone production and mood through the dopamine pathway. Effects can be noticed within hours of supplementation.
FAQs
When should I take L-Tyrosine?
For acute cognitive support, take 500-1,000 mg 30-60 minutes before demanding tasks. For general support, a morning dose is commonly recommended. Avoid taking late in the day as it may affect sleep.
Can I take tyrosine with thyroid medication?
If you take thyroid medication, consult your healthcare provider, as tyrosine is involved in thyroid hormone production and may interact.
Is L-Tyrosine safe during pregnancy?
Tyrosine from food is safe during pregnancy. Supplemental doses should be discussed with your healthcare provider.
Research
Donnan KJ et al. – PloS one (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39820592/
Fox et al — N Engl J Med (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2415988
Soileau et al — J Neurol (2025). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-025-13123-y
Jameson et al — Redox Biol (2025). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2025.103895
Ayabe T et al. – Scientific reports (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39379481/
Engelen MPKJ et al. – Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland) (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39181037/
Dunn RA et al. – Nutrients (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39599581/
Choi et al — BMC Neurol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-024-03603-5
Jost et al — JAMA Netw Open (2024). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.52177
Hickman et al — Behav Brain Res (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2024.115213
Nuic et al — Eur J Neurol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.16055
Pinto et al — Mol Genet Metab (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymgme.2024.108607
Solon-Júnior LJF et al. – Journal of sports sciences (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38290812/
Jansen et al — Neuroimage (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.119983
Desch et al — Elife (2023). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.81436
Devos et al — N Engl J Med (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2209254
Bartsch et al — Nat Med (2022). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-01935-8
Koch et al — Neuroimage (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119670
Reich et al — Lancet Neurol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(21)00237-4
Westwater et al — Psychol Med (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720001440
Pagan et al — Mov Disord (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.28389
da Costa Daniele TM et al. – Behavioural brain research (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31991178/
van der Kolk et al — Lancet Neurol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30285-6
Chong et al — Benef Microbes (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3920/BM2018.0135
Dennison et al — Brain Stimul (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2018.12.001
Görg B et al. – Journal of clinical and experimental hepatology (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30302047/
Bloemendaal M et al. – eNeuro (2018). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30094335/
Ramdani et al — Psychopharmacology (Berl) (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-018-4846-3
Gaballah et al — Gene (2018). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2018.03.061
Györfi et al — J Neural Transm (Vienna) (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-016-1630-6
Petersen et al — Mol Cell Biochem (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11010-017-3013-1
Coull N et al. – Medicine and science in sports and exercise (2016). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26285023/
Colzato LS et al. – Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior (2016). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27403851/
Müller et al — J Neural Transm (Vienna) (2016). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-016-1519-4
Sureda et al — Mol Nutr Food Res (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201600450
Jongkees et al. — meta-analysis (2015). [Meta-analysis]. General
Jongkees et al. — J Psychiatr Res (2015). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25797188/
Hase et al. — Pharmacol Biochem Behav (2015). [Review].
Neri et al. — Rapid Evidence Assessment (2015). [Rapid assessment (14 trials)].
Jongkees BJ et al. - Journal of Psychiatric Research (2015). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25598314/
Hase A et al. - Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26388707/
Colzato et al. — Neuropsychologia (2013). [RCT (crossover)].
Colzato LS et al. - Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23350186/
Fernstrom & Fernstrom — J Nutr (2007). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17513421/
Lieberman HR – Appetite (2003). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12798782/
Deijen et al. — Brain Res Bull (1999). [RCT (military field study)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507466/
Lieberman HR - NATO Technical Report (1994). [Review]. Stress Resilience
Military stress studies (Various). [Military RCTs]. General
Catecholamine precursor mechanism (Established). [Biochemical mechanism]. General
Tyrosine and environmental stress: behavioral effects. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8293316/
Tyrosine depletion and dopamine-dependent cognition. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3863934/
Tyrosine and thyroid hormone synthesis. [Review]. https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article-abstract/94/5/1630/2598217
Tyrosine supplementation and physical performance. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4044302/
Dietary tyrosine and cognitive flexibility. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21437603/
Tyrosine reverses cold-induced working memory deficit. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7794222/
Tyrosine supplementation and cognitive performance under stress. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10230711/
Tyrosine and stress: effects on cognitive performance. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2736402/
57 studies — L-Tyrosine
Donnan KJ et al. – PloS one (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39820592/
Fox et al — N Engl J Med (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2415988
Soileau et al — J Neurol (2025). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-025-13123-y
Jameson et al — Redox Biol (2025). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2025.103895
Ayabe T et al. – Scientific reports (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39379481/
Engelen MPKJ et al. – Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland) (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39181037/
Dunn RA et al. – Nutrients (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39599581/
Choi et al — BMC Neurol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-024-03603-5
Jost et al — JAMA Netw Open (2024). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.52177
Hickman et al — Behav Brain Res (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2024.115213
Nuic et al — Eur J Neurol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.16055
Pinto et al — Mol Genet Metab (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymgme.2024.108607
Solon-Júnior LJF et al. – Journal of sports sciences (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38290812/
Jansen et al — Neuroimage (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.119983
Desch et al — Elife (2023). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.81436
Devos et al — N Engl J Med (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2209254
Bartsch et al — Nat Med (2022). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-01935-8
Koch et al — Neuroimage (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119670
Reich et al — Lancet Neurol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(21)00237-4
Westwater et al — Psychol Med (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720001440
Pagan et al — Mov Disord (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.28389
da Costa Daniele TM et al. – Behavioural brain research (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31991178/
van der Kolk et al — Lancet Neurol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30285-6
Chong et al — Benef Microbes (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3920/BM2018.0135
Dennison et al — Brain Stimul (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2018.12.001
Görg B et al. – Journal of clinical and experimental hepatology (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30302047/
Bloemendaal M et al. – eNeuro (2018). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30094335/
Ramdani et al — Psychopharmacology (Berl) (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-018-4846-3
Gaballah et al — Gene (2018). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2018.03.061
Györfi et al — J Neural Transm (Vienna) (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-016-1630-6
Petersen et al — Mol Cell Biochem (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11010-017-3013-1
Coull N et al. – Medicine and science in sports and exercise (2016). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26285023/
Colzato LS et al. – Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior (2016). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27403851/
Müller et al — J Neural Transm (Vienna) (2016). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-016-1519-4
Sureda et al — Mol Nutr Food Res (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201600450
Jongkees et al. — meta-analysis (2015). [Meta-analysis]. General
Jongkees et al. — J Psychiatr Res (2015). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25797188/
Hase et al. — Pharmacol Biochem Behav (2015). [Review].
Neri et al. — Rapid Evidence Assessment (2015). [Rapid assessment (14 trials)].
Jongkees BJ et al. - Journal of Psychiatric Research (2015). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25598314/
Hase A et al. - Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26388707/
Colzato et al. — Neuropsychologia (2013). [RCT (crossover)].
Colzato LS et al. - Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience (2013). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23350186/
Fernstrom & Fernstrom — J Nutr (2007). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17513421/
Lieberman HR – Appetite (2003). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12798782/
Deijen et al. — Brain Res Bull (1999). [RCT (military field study)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507466/
Lieberman HR - NATO Technical Report (1994). [Review]. Stress Resilience
Military stress studies (Various). [Military RCTs]. General
Catecholamine precursor mechanism (Established). [Biochemical mechanism]. General
Tyrosine and environmental stress: behavioral effects. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8293316/
Tyrosine depletion and dopamine-dependent cognition. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3863934/
Tyrosine and thyroid hormone synthesis. [Review]. https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article-abstract/94/5/1630/2598217
Tyrosine supplementation and physical performance. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4044302/
Dietary tyrosine and cognitive flexibility. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21437603/
Tyrosine reverses cold-induced working memory deficit. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7794222/
Tyrosine supplementation and cognitive performance under stress. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10230711/
Tyrosine and stress: effects on cognitive performance. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2736402/
The Benefits of Lactobacillus acidophilus
Lactobacillus acidophilus
Probiotic strain
Lactobacillus acidophilus is a probiotic bacterium naturally found in the human gut and other parts of the body. As a probiotic, it helps maintain a healthy balance of bacteria in the body and offers numerous health benefits, particularly related to digestion, immunity, and vaginal health.
Key Highlights
- The most well-known probiotic species worldwide
- Produces lactic acid to maintain an acidic gut environment
- Supports lactose digestion in sensitive individuals
- Contributes to vaginal and urinary tract health
Biochemistry Timeline
Lactobacillus acidophilus reaches the small and large intestine, where it produces lactic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and bacteriocins. These compounds create an environment that supports beneficial bacteria while discouraging less desirable organisms. Colonisation begins within days, with digestive benefits typically noticed within 1 to 3 weeks.
Summary
Lactobacillus acidophilus is perhaps the most recognised probiotic strain, and for good reason. It produces lactic acid that helps maintain the gut's natural pH balance, supports healthy digestion, and may improve lactose tolerance. It is well-tolerated and has decades of safe use behind it.
FAQs
Can L. acidophilus help with lactose intolerance?
Some research suggests L. acidophilus can help improve lactose digestion by producing the enzyme lactase. While it may not eliminate symptoms entirely, it can improve comfort for some individuals.
Should I take L. acidophilus with food?
Taking probiotics with food or shortly after a meal can improve survival through stomach acid. A small amount of fat in the meal may further support absorption.
Research
Huang Y et al. — Cell Host Microbe (2025). [Preclinical + mechanistic]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40812303/
Shah AB et al. — Gut Microbes (2024). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39582101/
Wu L et al. — Gut Microbes (2024). [Preclinical + mechanistic]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39205654/
Mollazadeh-Narestan Z et al. — Probiotics Antimicrob Proteins (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36198994/
Gao H et al. — J Microbiol Biotechnol (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36196014/
Sergeev IN et al. — Nutrients (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31952249/
Russo R et al. — Mycoses (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30565745/
Russo R et al. — Benef Microbes (2019). [Clinical study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30525953/
Strain characteristics — established (Established). [Microbiological].
Cholesterol reduction — established (Established). [Multiple studies].
NCFM strain — established (Established). [Strain documentation].
Lactose intolerance support — established (Established). [Clinical evidence].
12 studies — Lactobacillus acidophilus
Huang Y et al. — Cell Host Microbe (2025). [Preclinical + mechanistic]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40812303/
Shah AB et al. — Gut Microbes (2024). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39582101/
Wu L et al. — Gut Microbes (2024). [Preclinical + mechanistic]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39205654/
Mollazadeh-Narestan Z et al. — Probiotics Antimicrob Proteins (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36198994/
Gao H et al. — J Microbiol Biotechnol (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36196014/
Sergeev IN et al. — Nutrients (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31952249/
Russo R et al. — Mycoses (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30565745/
Russo R et al. — Benef Microbes (2019). [Clinical study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30525953/
Strain characteristics — established (Established). [Microbiological].
Cholesterol reduction — established (Established). [Multiple studies].
NCFM strain — established (Established). [Strain documentation].
Lactose intolerance support — established (Established). [Clinical evidence].
The Benefits of Lactobacillus casei rhamnosus
Lactobacillus casei rhamnosus
Probiotic strain
Lactobacillus rhamnosus is a probiotic bacterium, that is known for its strong probiotic properties. Its ability to adhere to the intestinal lining, compete with harmful bacteria, and modulate immune responses is widely documented
Key Highlights
- Among the most extensively researched probiotic strains
- Supports immune function, particularly in children and elderly
- Survives stomach acid and bile effectively
- Studied for reducing duration of digestive discomfort
Biochemistry Timeline
L. casei rhamnosus has excellent survival through the digestive tract and adheres well to intestinal cells. It begins interacting with gut-associated immune tissue shortly after reaching the intestine. Clinical effects, including improved immune markers and digestive regularity, are typically observed after 2 to 4 weeks of consistent intake.
Summary
Lactobacillus casei rhamnosus is one of the most clinically studied probiotic strains, with research spanning immune support, digestive health, and even skin conditions. Its strong survival through the digestive tract and ability to adhere to intestinal cells make it an effective and reliable probiotic choice.
FAQs
What is L. casei rhamnosus best known for?
It is best known for supporting immune function and digestive health. Clinical trials have studied its effects on reducing the duration and severity of common digestive issues.
Is this the same as Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG?
L. rhamnosus GG is a specific, well-known strain within the broader L. rhamnosus species. Our formulation uses a related strain within this extensively studied species.
Research
Trzos K, Hutsch T, Koval A et al. (2026). Probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus mitigates PBC-like features in Mcpip1-deficient mice via modulation of gut-liver crosstalk. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41846103/
Hou G, Deng H, Zhou L et al. (2026). Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG Alleviates Post-Weaning Stress-Induced Intestinal Barrier Damage and Inflammation by Promoting Intestinal Health and Modulating the Gut Microbiota in Piglets. Microorganisms. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41753697/
Zakiudin DP, Bjerkenes Rø AD, Videm V et al. (2026). T-Cell Populations in Infancy After Maternal Probiotic Supplementation to Prevent Atopic Dermatitis. Clin Transl Allergy. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41748464/
Fernández L, Alba C, Pérez M et al. (2026). Probiotic Strains from Canine Milk Support Gastrointestinal Health in Weaning Labrador Retriever Puppies. Animals (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41681444/
Van Meulebroek L, Ghyselinck J, Van Elst D et al. (2026). The impact of Symprove™ multi-strain probiotic on enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli- or antibiotic-induced gut microbiome dysbiosis using high-throughput in vitro screening. Food Res Int. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41652742/
Racioppo A, Corbo MR, Guerrieri A et al. (2026). In Vitro Assessment of Gut Microbiota Modulation Through Functional Biscuits Enriched with Almond By-Products. Foods. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41596911/
Wu Y, You X, Huang S et al. (2026). Utilizing an In Vitro Fermentation Model to Assess Probiotics on Eimeria-Disturbed Cecal Microbiome and Metabolome. Animals (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41594435/
Li S, Tong Y, Li Y et al. (2026). Lactobacillus rhamnosus RL-H3-005 ameliorates Enterococcus faecium-induced pulmonary inflammation via gut microbiota remodeling and macrophage polarization regulation. Food Res Int. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41539833/
Sun B, Hu C, Wang Q et al. (2026). Probiotic Administration Reshapes the Sex Differentiation Trajectory of Zebrafish under Perfluorobutanesulfonate Challenge. Environ Sci Technol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41539653/
Peng C, Pan Y, Wu M et al. (2026). Effects of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus MP108 on functional constipation symptoms and gut microbiota in children. Pediatr Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41519948/
Li N, Zhu Z, Wu S et al. (2026). Effects of a novel synbiotic intervention on abdominal visceral fat reductions and gut microbiota in overweight and obese adults: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41512635/
Ma Y, Luo H, Chen J et al. (2026). Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Xylo-oligosaccharides improve meat quality and modulate the microbiota composition of Magang geese aged 22-50 days. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41265136/
Argentino G, Paribello G, Foderini A et al. (2025). Synbiotic Supplementation for Chronic Constipation in Patients Under Peritoneal Dialysis: An Italian Multicenter Prospective Study. J Ren Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41563920/
Huang J, Zou Q, Chen Y et al. (2025). Probiotic supplementation on cognitive and other aging-related physiological functions in middle-aged and older adults with mild cognitive impairment (PCAMCI): protocol for a randomized, triple-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Nutr J. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41462287/
Viteri-Echeverría J, Calvo-Lerma J, García-Hernández J et al. (2025). Assessment of the Isolated and Combined Impact of β-Glucan and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus on Cystic Fibrosis Gut Microbiota Using a SHIME(®) System. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41374046/
Ademoyegun AB, Ojo ET, Rasaq WA et al. (2025). Effects of exercise with probiotics, exercise alone, and probiotics alone on physical, motor, affective, and cognitive functions in stroke patients: a randomised controlled trial. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41291801/
Shim YH, Jang J, Jung I et al. (2025). The impact of probiotics on testosterone synthesis in the TM3 cell line. Clin Exp Reprod Med. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41287565/
Itova T (2025). Prophylactic probiotic combinations and their effect on the course of neonatal jaundice: A comparative cohort study. J Neonatal Perinatal Med. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41237165/
Ghazvineh D, Dodangeh M, Razmjou S et al. (2025). The Effect of High-Intensity Interval Training and Mixed Probiotic Supplementation on SMOC-1 Gene Expression, Insulin Resistance, and Blood Glucose in Male Rats With Induced Diabetes. J Diabetes Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41194976/
Choi D, Fan X, Yu JH (2025). Comprehensive Review of Dietary Probiotics in Reducing Aflatoxin B(1) Toxicity. Toxins (Basel) [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41150183/
Shah AB et al. — Gut Microbes (2024). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39582101/
Cukrowska B et al. — Nutrients (2021). [RCT (multicentre, double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33916192/
Schnadower D et al. — Am J Gastroenterol (2021). [RCT analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34183579/
Johnstone J et al. — JAMA (2021). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34546300/
Capurso L — J Clin Gastroenterol (2019). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30741841/
Guo Q et al. — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2019). [Cochrane SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31039287/
AAD prevention — Cochrane (2019). [Cochrane evidence].
Gut-brain axis — emerging (2020-2024). [Emerging evidence].
Immune modulation — established (Established). [Microbiological].
GG acid survival — established (Established). [Microbiological].
Allergy prevention — established (Established). [Immunological review].
Women's vaginal health — established (Established). [Multiple studies].
32 studies — Lactobacillus casei rhamnosus
Trzos K, Hutsch T, Koval A et al. (2026). Probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus mitigates PBC-like features in Mcpip1-deficient mice via modulation of gut-liver crosstalk. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41846103/
Hou G, Deng H, Zhou L et al. (2026). Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG Alleviates Post-Weaning Stress-Induced Intestinal Barrier Damage and Inflammation by Promoting Intestinal Health and Modulating the Gut Microbiota in Piglets. Microorganisms. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41753697/
Zakiudin DP, Bjerkenes Rø AD, Videm V et al. (2026). T-Cell Populations in Infancy After Maternal Probiotic Supplementation to Prevent Atopic Dermatitis. Clin Transl Allergy. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41748464/
Fernández L, Alba C, Pérez M et al. (2026). Probiotic Strains from Canine Milk Support Gastrointestinal Health in Weaning Labrador Retriever Puppies. Animals (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41681444/
Van Meulebroek L, Ghyselinck J, Van Elst D et al. (2026). The impact of Symprove™ multi-strain probiotic on enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli- or antibiotic-induced gut microbiome dysbiosis using high-throughput in vitro screening. Food Res Int. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41652742/
Racioppo A, Corbo MR, Guerrieri A et al. (2026). In Vitro Assessment of Gut Microbiota Modulation Through Functional Biscuits Enriched with Almond By-Products. Foods. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41596911/
Wu Y, You X, Huang S et al. (2026). Utilizing an In Vitro Fermentation Model to Assess Probiotics on Eimeria-Disturbed Cecal Microbiome and Metabolome. Animals (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41594435/
Li S, Tong Y, Li Y et al. (2026). Lactobacillus rhamnosus RL-H3-005 ameliorates Enterococcus faecium-induced pulmonary inflammation via gut microbiota remodeling and macrophage polarization regulation. Food Res Int. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41539833/
Sun B, Hu C, Wang Q et al. (2026). Probiotic Administration Reshapes the Sex Differentiation Trajectory of Zebrafish under Perfluorobutanesulfonate Challenge. Environ Sci Technol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41539653/
Peng C, Pan Y, Wu M et al. (2026). Effects of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus MP108 on functional constipation symptoms and gut microbiota in children. Pediatr Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41519948/
Li N, Zhu Z, Wu S et al. (2026). Effects of a novel synbiotic intervention on abdominal visceral fat reductions and gut microbiota in overweight and obese adults: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41512635/
Ma Y, Luo H, Chen J et al. (2026). Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Xylo-oligosaccharides improve meat quality and modulate the microbiota composition of Magang geese aged 22-50 days. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41265136/
Argentino G, Paribello G, Foderini A et al. (2025). Synbiotic Supplementation for Chronic Constipation in Patients Under Peritoneal Dialysis: An Italian Multicenter Prospective Study. J Ren Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41563920/
Huang J, Zou Q, Chen Y et al. (2025). Probiotic supplementation on cognitive and other aging-related physiological functions in middle-aged and older adults with mild cognitive impairment (PCAMCI): protocol for a randomized, triple-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Nutr J. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41462287/
Viteri-Echeverría J, Calvo-Lerma J, García-Hernández J et al. (2025). Assessment of the Isolated and Combined Impact of β-Glucan and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus on Cystic Fibrosis Gut Microbiota Using a SHIME(®) System. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41374046/
Ademoyegun AB, Ojo ET, Rasaq WA et al. (2025). Effects of exercise with probiotics, exercise alone, and probiotics alone on physical, motor, affective, and cognitive functions in stroke patients: a randomised controlled trial. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41291801/
Shim YH, Jang J, Jung I et al. (2025). The impact of probiotics on testosterone synthesis in the TM3 cell line. Clin Exp Reprod Med. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41287565/
Itova T (2025). Prophylactic probiotic combinations and their effect on the course of neonatal jaundice: A comparative cohort study. J Neonatal Perinatal Med. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41237165/
Ghazvineh D, Dodangeh M, Razmjou S et al. (2025). The Effect of High-Intensity Interval Training and Mixed Probiotic Supplementation on SMOC-1 Gene Expression, Insulin Resistance, and Blood Glucose in Male Rats With Induced Diabetes. J Diabetes Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41194976/
Choi D, Fan X, Yu JH (2025). Comprehensive Review of Dietary Probiotics in Reducing Aflatoxin B(1) Toxicity. Toxins (Basel) [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41150183/
Shah AB et al. — Gut Microbes (2024). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39582101/
Cukrowska B et al. — Nutrients (2021). [RCT (multicentre, double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33916192/
Schnadower D et al. — Am J Gastroenterol (2021). [RCT analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34183579/
Johnstone J et al. — JAMA (2021). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34546300/
Capurso L — J Clin Gastroenterol (2019). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30741841/
Guo Q et al. — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2019). [Cochrane SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31039287/
AAD prevention — Cochrane (2019). [Cochrane evidence].
Gut-brain axis — emerging (2020-2024). [Emerging evidence].
Immune modulation — established (Established). [Microbiological].
GG acid survival — established (Established). [Microbiological].
Allergy prevention — established (Established). [Immunological review].
Women's vaginal health — established (Established). [Multiple studies].
The Benefits of Lemon
Lemon
Lemon provides natural vitamin C, citric acid, and flavonoids including hesperidin and diosmin. It is used as both a flavouring and a functional ingredient, contributing natural acidity, antioxidant compounds, and vitamin C that supports immune function, iron absorption, and collagen formation.
Key Highlights
- Natural source of vitamin C
- Contains citrus flavonoids (hesperidin, diosmin) with antioxidant properties
- Supports iron absorption when consumed with iron-rich foods
- Refreshing natural flavouring
- Traditional use for immune support and vitality
Biochemistry Timeline
The vitamin C and citric acid in lemon extract are absorbed quickly in the small intestine. Vitamin C reaches peak blood levels within 1 to 3 hours. Citric acid may support mineral absorption by creating a mildly acidic environment in the gut. The flavonoids in lemon, particularly hesperidin, are metabolised by gut bacteria and contribute to antioxidant activity.
Summary
Lemon provides natural vitamin C, citric acid, and citrus flavonoids. It contributes both flavour and functional benefits to our formulations, supporting immune health and nutrient absorption.
FAQs
What makes lemon extract different from just eating lemons?
Lemon extract provides concentrated levels of the beneficial compounds, including vitamin C, citric acid, and flavonoids, in amounts that would be impractical to achieve through fresh lemon consumption alone.
Can lemon extract affect tooth enamel?
In supplement form (capsules or tablets), lemon extract does not come into prolonged contact with tooth enamel, unlike drinking lemon juice directly, so this is not a concern.
Research
Posadino AM et al. — Nutrients (2024). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39203756/
Yao L et al. — Biomed Pharmacother (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35987162/
Singh N et al. — Med Chem (2021). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32901586/
Figueira JA et al. — Molecules (2021). [Comparative study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34299476/
Barghouthy Y & Somani BK — Nutrients (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34836376/
Klimek-Szczykutowicz M et al. — Plants (2020). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31963590/
Vitamin C and iron absorption — EFSA (Established). [Regulatory/established].
Citrus flavonoids — established (Established). [Established science].
Hesperidin content — established (Established). [Phytochemistry].
Citric acid and iron absorption — established (Established). [Nutritional biochemistry].
D-limonene content — established (Established). [Phytochemistry].
11 studies — Lemon
Posadino AM et al. — Nutrients (2024). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39203756/
Yao L et al. — Biomed Pharmacother (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35987162/
Singh N et al. — Med Chem (2021). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32901586/
Figueira JA et al. — Molecules (2021). [Comparative study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34299476/
Barghouthy Y & Somani BK — Nutrients (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34836376/
Klimek-Szczykutowicz M et al. — Plants (2020). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31963590/
Vitamin C and iron absorption — EFSA (Established). [Regulatory/established].
Citrus flavonoids — established (Established). [Established science].
Hesperidin content — established (Established). [Phytochemistry].
Citric acid and iron absorption — established (Established). [Nutritional biochemistry].
D-limonene content — established (Established). [Phytochemistry].
The Benefits of Lemon balm
Lemon balm
Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis) is a gentle herb from the mint family that has been used for centuries in European herbal medicine for its calming, mood-supporting, and digestive-soothing properties. It has a pleasant lemony scent and flavour, and is valued for its ability to promote relaxation without causing drowsiness.
Key Highlights
- Traditional European herb used for over 2,000 years
- Gentle calming effect without drowsiness
- Supports relaxation and sleep preparation
- May soothe digestive discomfort
- Contains rosmarinic acid and flavonoids with antioxidant properties
- Often combined with chamomile or valerian for enhanced effect
Biochemistry Timeline
Lemon balm's calming effects can be noticed within 30 to 60 minutes of consumption. For sleep support, taking it 30 to 60 minutes before bedtime is typical. Consistent daily use over 2 to 4 weeks may enhance the benefits.
Summary
Lemon Balm is a gentle, traditional European herb valued for its calming, mood-supporting, and digestive-soothing properties. It promotes relaxation without drowsiness, making it suitable for both daytime and evening use. Its pleasant flavour and mild nature make it a versatile addition to calming supplement formulations.
FAQs
Is lemon balm safe during pregnancy?
Lemon balm is generally considered safe as a culinary herb, but supplemental doses during pregnancy should be discussed with your healthcare provider.
Can I take lemon balm during the day?
Yes, lemon balm promotes calm without significant drowsiness, making it suitable for daytime use when you want to ease tension while remaining alert.
Research
Pasyar N et al. — BMC Complement Med Ther (2025). [Clinical trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40082838/
Oliveira MVB et al. — Int J Mol Sci (2025). [Narrative review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41226605/
Rigillo G et al. — Children (Basel) (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41007011/
Di Pierro F et al. — Nutrients (2024). [RCT (double-blind, crossover)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39683592/
Mathews IM et al. — Nutrients (2024). [Clinical trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39458539/
Safari M et al. — BMC Complement Med Ther (2023). [Clinical trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37131158/
Dutta T et al. — Front Pharmacol (2022). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35592415/
Zam W et al. — Front Biosci (Schol Ed) (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35730441/
Ghazizadeh J et al. — Phytother Res (2021). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34449930/
Haybar H et al. — Clin Nutr ESPEN (2018). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29908682/
Shakeri A et al. — J Ethnopharmacol (2016). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27167460/
Scholey A et al. — Nutrients (2014). [RCT (pilot)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25517023/
Cases J et al. — Med J Nutr Metab (2011). [Pilot RCT].
Kennedy DO et al. — Pharmacol Biochem Behav (2003). [RCT (crossover)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12587578/
Lemon balm for Alzheimer's disease: pilot study. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12888775/
Lemon balm and GABAergic mechanisms of action. [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29369810/
Lemon balm for sleep disorders: clinical evidence. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5871149/
Sedative effects of lemon balm extract. [RCT]. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0944711399800130
Melissa officinalis phytochemistry and bioactivities. [Review]. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/270255274.pdf
Modulation of mood and cognitive performance by lemon balm. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12062586/
Lemon balm supplementation for anxiety and sleep. [RCT]. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2405457717305144
Lemon balm and cognitive performance. [Review]. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/6/11/4805
Melissa officinalis: a review of traditional uses and pharmacology. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3230760/
23 studies — Lemon balm
Pasyar N et al. — BMC Complement Med Ther (2025). [Clinical trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40082838/
Oliveira MVB et al. — Int J Mol Sci (2025). [Narrative review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41226605/
Rigillo G et al. — Children (Basel) (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41007011/
Di Pierro F et al. — Nutrients (2024). [RCT (double-blind, crossover)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39683592/
Mathews IM et al. — Nutrients (2024). [Clinical trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39458539/
Safari M et al. — BMC Complement Med Ther (2023). [Clinical trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37131158/
Dutta T et al. — Front Pharmacol (2022). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35592415/
Zam W et al. — Front Biosci (Schol Ed) (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35730441/
Ghazizadeh J et al. — Phytother Res (2021). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34449930/
Haybar H et al. — Clin Nutr ESPEN (2018). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29908682/
Shakeri A et al. — J Ethnopharmacol (2016). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27167460/
Scholey A et al. — Nutrients (2014). [RCT (pilot)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25517023/
Cases J et al. — Med J Nutr Metab (2011). [Pilot RCT].
Kennedy DO et al. — Pharmacol Biochem Behav (2003). [RCT (crossover)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12587578/
Lemon balm for Alzheimer's disease: pilot study. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12888775/
Lemon balm and GABAergic mechanisms of action. [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29369810/
Lemon balm for sleep disorders: clinical evidence. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5871149/
Sedative effects of lemon balm extract. [RCT]. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0944711399800130
Melissa officinalis phytochemistry and bioactivities. [Review]. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/270255274.pdf
Modulation of mood and cognitive performance by lemon balm. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12062586/
Lemon balm supplementation for anxiety and sleep. [RCT]. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2405457717305144
Lemon balm and cognitive performance. [Review]. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/6/11/4805
Melissa officinalis: a review of traditional uses and pharmacology. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3230760/
The Benefits of life’s™OMEGA - Vegan
life’s™OMEGA - Vegan
Plant Based
life's OMEGA is a premium vegan omega-3 supplement derived from algal oil, providing DHA and EPA from the original source. Fish get their omega-3 from algae, so algal oil cuts out the middleman, offering a sustainable, ocean-friendly, and vegan-compatible source of these essential fatty acids.
Key Highlights
- Vegan source of pre-formed DHA and EPA from algae
- Algae are the original source of omega-3 in the marine food chain
- EFSA: DHA supports normal brain function and vision (250 mg/day)
- EFSA: EPA+DHA support normal heart function (250 mg/day)
- Sustainable, ocean-friendly, and contaminant-free
- Much more effective than ALA conversion from flax/chia (which is <5%)
Biochemistry Timeline
Algal omega-3 follows the same timeline as fish-derived omega-3: 2-4 weeks for membrane changes, 8-12 weeks for full tissue saturation. See our main Omega-3 page for detailed information.
Summary
Vegan omega-3 from algal oil provides pre-formed DHA and EPA, the same active forms found in fish oil, directly from the source. It is the most effective plant-based omega-3 option, offering EFSA-recognised benefits for brain, vision, and heart health while being sustainable and ocean-friendly.
FAQs
Is algal omega-3 as effective as fish oil?
Yes, the DHA and EPA in algal oil are chemically identical to those in fish oil. The body cannot distinguish between the two sources. Algal oil is simply a more direct and sustainable way to obtain these essential fats.
Is it safe during pregnancy?
Algal DHA is recommended for pregnant vegans and vegetarians. EFSA recognises that maternal DHA intake supports normal brain and eye development of the foetus. Consult your healthcare provider for dosage guidance.
Research
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The Benefits of Magnesium
Magnesium
Bioavailable form
Magnesium is one of the most important minerals in the body, involved in over 600 enzymatic reactions. We use Magnesium Bisglycinate, a chelated form bound to the amino acid glycine, which is known for its excellent bioavailability and gentle absorption. Magnesium supports everything from energy production and muscle function to nervous system health and quality sleep.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Supports the reduction of tiredness and fatigue (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal muscle function (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal psychological function (EFSA approved)
- Supports the maintenance of normal bones and teeth (EFSA approved)
- Has a role in the process of cell division (EFSA approved)
Biochemistry Timeline
Magnesium supplementation can begin to show benefits within 1 to 4 weeks, though it may take 6 to 8 weeks for full effects, particularly for sleep quality and mood improvements. The bisglycinate form is absorbed efficiently, meaning you may notice improvements in muscle comfort and relaxation relatively quickly.
Only about 1% of the body's magnesium is found in the blood, so serum tests can sometimes underestimate a deficiency. Consistent daily supplementation is the most effective approach to maintaining adequate tissue levels.
PMS and Hormonal Comfort
For many women, magnesium can offer meaningful support during the menstrual cycle. Research has shown that magnesium supplementation can help ease common premenstrual symptoms including mood changes, bloating, and breast tenderness.
A landmark double-blind RCT by Facchinetti et al. (1991) found that magnesium supplementation from day 15 to menstruation significantly improved PMS mood symptoms. Another crossover trial (Walker et al., 1998) demonstrated that 200 mg of magnesium for two cycles significantly reduced fluid retention symptoms including weight gain, breast tenderness, and bloating.
A 2025 systematic review in Nutrition Reviews confirmed that magnesium, alongside B6, calcium, and zinc, shows consistent evidence for supporting PMS-related symptoms, with approximately 48% of reproductive-age women experiencing PMS to some degree.
Bone Health
While calcium often receives the most attention for bone health, magnesium is equally important. About 60% of the body's magnesium is stored in bone tissue, where it contributes to bone mineral density and structural integrity.
Magnesium also supports the activity of vitamin D, which is needed for calcium absorption. Without adequate magnesium, vitamin D cannot be fully activated in the body, creating a chain reaction that can affect calcium metabolism and bone health.
EFSA recognises that magnesium contributes to the maintenance of normal bones. Ensuring adequate magnesium alongside vitamin D and calcium provides a well-rounded foundation for long-term bone health.
Summary
Magnesium is one of the most versatile and essential minerals in the body, involved in over 600 enzymatic reactions. We use Magnesium Bisglycinate for its superior bioavailability and gentle absorption. Supplementation supports energy production, sleep quality, muscle and nerve function, psychological well-being, and bone health.
Magnesium deficiency is common in modern diets, and the bisglycinate form offers an effective, well-tolerated way to maintain adequate levels. Benefits can begin within 1 to 4 weeks, with full effects typically felt by 6 to 8 weeks of consistent daily use.
FAQs
Why Magnesium Bisglycinate specifically?
Bisglycinate is a chelated form where magnesium is bound to the amino acid glycine. This makes it highly bioavailable (well-absorbed) and gentle on the stomach. The glycine itself has calming properties, which adds to the relaxation benefits.
When is the best time to take magnesium?
For sleep support, taking magnesium in the evening (1-2 hours before bed) is often recommended. For energy and general health benefits, it can be taken at any time with food. Consistency matters more than timing.
Can I take too much magnesium?
The European upper limit for supplemental magnesium is 250 mg per day for adults. Very high doses can cause loose stools, which is usually the first sign of excess. The bisglycinate form is less likely to cause digestive discomfort than other forms.
How do I know if I am low in magnesium?
Common signs of low magnesium include muscle cramps, poor sleep, fatigue, tension headaches, and irritability. Because most magnesium is stored in bones and tissues, standard blood tests may not always reflect true status. If you recognise these symptoms, supplementation is a reasonable and low-risk approach.
Is magnesium safe during pregnancy?
Magnesium is generally considered safe during pregnancy. It may even help with leg cramps and sleep quality, both common during pregnancy. However, always consult your healthcare provider for personalised guidance on dosage.
Research
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The Benefits of Magnesium
Magnesium
Dual-Form Blend
Magnesium Citrate is magnesium bound to citric acid, one of the most commonly used and cost-effective forms of magnesium supplements. It has good bioavailability and is well-studied. Citrate form is particularly known for supporting digestive regularity alongside the broad benefits of magnesium.
Key Highlights
- Good bioavailability at an accessible price point
- Supports digestive regularity alongside magnesium benefits
- EFSA: contributes to normal energy metabolism, muscle function, nervous system function, bone health, tiredness reduction
- Well-studied and widely available form
- May cause loose stools at higher doses in sensitive individuals
Biochemistry Timeline
Magnesium citrate is quickly absorbed. Benefits for energy and muscle function begin within 1 to 2 weeks. Digestive effects are typically noticed within days. Full systemic benefits develop over 4 to 8 weeks.
Summary
Magnesium Citrate is a well-absorbed, affordable form of magnesium that supports energy, muscle, nerve, and bone health with the added benefit of supporting digestive regularity. It is one of the most widely used magnesium supplements worldwide.
FAQs
Why might I choose citrate over bisglycinate?
Choose citrate if you also want digestive regularity support or prefer a more affordable option. Choose bisglycinate if you have a sensitive stomach, want calming/sleep benefits, or prefer a form less likely to cause loose stools.
Research
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The Benefits of Magnesium Malate
Magnesium Malate
Malate Form
Magnesium Malate combines magnesium with malic acid, a compound naturally found in fruits (especially apples). This form is valued for its excellent bioavailability and is particularly associated with energy production support, as malic acid itself plays a role in the citric acid cycle. It is gentle on the stomach and well-tolerated.
Key Highlights
- Chelated form: magnesium bound to malic acid for enhanced absorption
- Dual energy support: both magnesium and malic acid support ATP production
- Gentle on the stomach compared to magnesium oxide
- EFSA: contributes to normal energy metabolism, reduction of tiredness, muscle function, nervous system function
- Malic acid is a natural citric acid cycle intermediate
- Well-suited for energy and muscle support
Biochemistry Timeline
Magnesium malate is well-absorbed and benefits can begin within 1 to 4 weeks. Energy and muscle comfort improvements are often noticed relatively quickly. Full effects on sleep, mood, and stress resilience typically develop over 4 to 8 weeks of consistent use.
Summary
Magnesium Malate combines magnesium with malic acid for dual energy production support. It is well-absorbed, gentle on the stomach, and supports energy metabolism, muscle function, and nervous system health. This form is particularly relevant for those seeking an energy-focused magnesium supplement.
FAQs
How is magnesium malate different from bisglycinate?
Malate is paired with malic acid (energy focus), while bisglycinate is paired with glycine (calming/sleep focus). Both are well-absorbed. Choose malate for daytime energy support and bisglycinate for evening/relaxation support.
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The Benefits of Magnesium Taurine Chelate
Magnesium Taurine Chelate
Chelated form
Magnesium Taurine Chelate combines magnesium with taurine, an amino acid with calming and cardiovascular-supportive properties. This form is valued for its potential benefits to heart health and relaxation, as both magnesium and taurine independently support cardiovascular function and nervous system calm.
Key Highlights
- Combines magnesium with taurine for cardiovascular support
- Both nutrients independently support heart health
- Taurine provides additional calming and neuroprotective benefits
- Chelated form for good bioavailability
- EFSA: magnesium contributes to normal muscle function, energy metabolism, nervous system function
- Gentle on the digestive system
Biochemistry Timeline
Benefits may begin within 2 to 4 weeks. Cardiovascular and relaxation benefits develop with consistent daily use over 4 to 8 weeks.
Summary
Magnesium Taurine Chelate combines two cardiovascular and calming nutrients in one bioavailable form. It is well-suited for those seeking heart health and relaxation support alongside the broad benefits of magnesium.
FAQs
When should I take magnesium taurate?
It can be taken any time of day. For relaxation benefits, evening use may be preferred. For cardiovascular support, consistency matters more than timing.
Research
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The Benefits of Marine Collagen
Marine Collagen
Type I Collagen Peptide
Marine collagen is a type I collagen derived from fish, providing hydrolysed collagen peptides that are readily absorbed by the body. Collagen is the most abundant protein in the human body, forming the structural foundation of skin, bones, tendons, and connective tissue. From our mid-20s, natural collagen production declines by approximately 1% per year, making supplementation an increasingly popular choice for skin and joint health.
Key Highlights
- Hydrolysed Type I collagen for optimal absorption
- Supports skin hydration and elasticity (supported by meta-analyses)
- May support connective tissue and joint comfort
- Complements calcium and vitamin D for bone health
- Natural collagen production declines ~1% per year from mid-20s
- Marine-sourced (fish), sustainably derived
Biochemistry Timeline
Collagen peptide supplementation typically requires 8 to 12 weeks of consistent daily intake before visible improvements in skin hydration and elasticity can be expected. Some people report improvements in nail strength and hair texture within 4 to 6 weeks.
For joint-related benefits, a longer supplementation period of 3 to 6 months is often needed. Collagen peptides are best taken consistently, and many people find it convenient to dissolve them in a morning drink or smoothie. They are generally flavourless and dissolve easily in both hot and cold liquids.
Hair and Nail Support
While the evidence base is more limited than for skin, many users of collagen supplements report improvements in nail strength and hair texture. Collagen provides amino acids (particularly glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline) that are building blocks for keratin, the protein that forms the structure of hair and nails.
These amino acids also support the dermal layer of the scalp, where hair follicles are rooted. While more rigorous research is needed, collagen supplementation may complement other hair-supportive nutrients like biotin, zinc, and iron.
Gut Lining Support
The amino acids in collagen, particularly glycine and glutamine, are important for maintaining the integrity of the gut lining. The intestinal wall is lined with connective tissue that requires collagen for its structure and repair.
While research specifically on collagen supplementation and gut health is still in its early stages, the amino acid profile of hydrolysed collagen provides nutrients that support the mucosal lining of the digestive tract. This is an area of growing interest that aligns with the broader understanding of gut health and overall well-being.
Summary
Marine collagen provides hydrolysed Type I collagen peptides that are well-absorbed and may support skin hydration, elasticity, connective tissue health, and bone quality. The strongest evidence supports improvements in skin hydration and elasticity with consistent use over 8 to 12 weeks.
We value honesty: while many studies show positive results, some independent analyses note that the evidence is still evolving. Collagen supplementation works best as part of a broader approach to skin and body health, alongside good nutrition, hydration, and sun protection.
FAQs
How much collagen should I take daily?
Most research uses doses of 2.5 to 10 grams per day of hydrolysed collagen peptides. Higher doses have not consistently shown additional benefits. Consistency is more important than dose.
Can I get collagen from food?
Bone broth, fish skin, and chicken skin are natural sources of collagen. However, the collagen in food is not hydrolysed, meaning it may be less efficiently absorbed than supplemental collagen peptides. A balanced diet rich in vitamin C, zinc, and protein supports the body's own collagen production.
Is marine collagen suitable for everyone?
Marine collagen is derived from fish and is not suitable for those with fish allergies or those following a strict vegan diet. For vegans, we offer a vegan collagen support blend that provides the amino acids and nutrients needed for the body's own collagen production.
When will I see results?
Skin hydration and elasticity improvements are typically reported after 8 to 12 weeks of daily use. Nail and hair benefits may take 3 to 6 months. Results vary between individuals.
Is collagen safe during pregnancy?
Hydrolysed collagen is generally considered safe, but research specifically during pregnancy is limited. Consult your healthcare provider before starting any new supplement during pregnancy.
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de Miranda et al. — Int J Dermatol (2021). [Systematic review & MA (19 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33742704/
Liu C – Medicine international (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36698868/
Subhan F et al. – Critical reviews in food science and nutrition (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32345036/
Michalak et al. — Int J Mol Sci (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34206767/
Fan L et al. – Medicine (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33546047/
Zdzieblik et al — Nutrients (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020523
Miyanaga et al — Skin Pharmacol Physiol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000513988
Lin et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.13500
Evans et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.13676
Wageh et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002641
Luo et al — J Orthop Traumatol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s10195-021-00572-0
Waluyo et al — J Rehabil Med (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2340/16501977-2835
Clark et al. — J Cosmet Dermatol (2020). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31846218/
Kjaer M et al. – The Journal of nutrition (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31897483/
Ocampo-Garza SS et al. – Dermatologic therapy (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32882083/
Oliviero et al — Reumatismo (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.4081/reumatismo.2020.1272
Žmitek et al — Nutrients (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030618
Oikawa et al — Am J Clin Nutr (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqz332
MacInnis et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2020-0009
Argyrou et al — J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32131366/
Cheng et al — Cartilage (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1177/1947603518798884
Skov et al. — J Cosmet Dermatol (2019). [Review]. General
Praet et al — Nutrients (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11010076
Alcock et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2019-0024
Skov et al — Nutrients (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051064
Maia Campos et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12893
Kirmse et al — Nutrients (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051154
Hao et al — Osteoarthritis Cartilage (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2018.10.009
Bricca et al — Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.23786
DePhillipo NN et al. – Orthopaedic journal of sports medicine (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30386805/
Czajka et al — Nutr Res (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2018.06.001
Dressler et al — J Sports Sci Med (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29769831/
Petersen Vitello Kalil et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12430
Huang et al — Osteoarthritis Cartilage (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2018.08.005
Ruff et al — Clin Interv Aging (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S153782
Tsuruta et al — Mol Med Rep (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2018.9396
Shaw G et al. – The American journal of clinical nutrition (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27852613/
Heaton LE et al. – Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28702900/
Jakobsen JR et al. – Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27781307/
Pullar JM et al. - Nutrients (2017). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28805671/
Zdzieblik et al — Appl Physiol Nutr Metab (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2016-0390
Taipale et al — BMC Genet (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12863-017-0585-4
Lugo et al — Nutr J (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-016-0130-8
Chmielewski et al — Am J Sports Med (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546515620583
Mcmurdo et al — Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.22724
Karsdal et al — Osteoarthritis Cartilage (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2014.12.019
Kanzaki et al — Clin Interv Aging (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S93077
Proksch et al. — Skin Pharmacol Physiol (2014). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23949208/
Choi SY et al. – Journal of cosmetic and laser therapy : official publication of the European Society for Laser Dermatology (2014). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24131075/
Harston A et al. – Knee surgery, sports traumatology, arthroscopy : official journal of the ESSKA (2012). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21695465/
Schagen et al. — Dermato-Endocrinol (2012). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23785655/
Verdier-Sévrain S – Climacteric : the journal of the International Menopause Society (2007). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17653955/
Verdier-Sévrain S et al. – Experimental dermatology (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16433679/
Inoue et al. — J Agric Food Chem (2005). [Controlled study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16076145/
Raine-Fenning NJ et al. – American journal of clinical dermatology (2003). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12762829/
Hemilä H – The British journal of nutrition (1992). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1547201/
Kurban RS et al. – The Journal of dermatologic surgery and oncology (1990). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2229632/
Collagen peptide absorption — bioavailability (Established). [Mechanistic]. General
Combined beauty ingredient evidence (Multiple years). [Multiple ingredient evidence]. General
125 studies — Marine Collagen
Tassara E et al. – Progress in molecular and subcellular biology (2026). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41733673/
Am J Med 2025 - collagen skin aging MA (2025). [Meta-analysis (23 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40324552/
Lee E et al. – Journal of microbiology and biotechnology (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40935395/
Bartoletti E et al. – Clinical, cosmetic and investigational dermatology (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41393269/
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Man Y et al. – Frontiers in pharmacology (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40727093/
Naumov et al — Ter Arkh (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2025.05.203272
Genç et al — BMC Musculoskelet Disord (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-024-08244-w
Genç et al — Jt Dis Relat Surg (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.52312/jdrs.2025.1965
Wang et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.70565
Aussieker et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000003788
Reynolds et al — Br J Nutr (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114525103851
Paulus et al — Clin Nutr (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2025.01.020
Xing et al — Food Funct (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4fo04240a
Kumar et al — J Am Nutr Assoc (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/27697061.2024.2438894
Yuenyongviwat et al — Sci Rep (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-17505-0
Alekseeva et al — Ter Arkh (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2025.01.203145
Reilly et al. — Dermatol Res Practice (2024). [RCT (double-blind, placebo)]. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8752787
Inacio PAQ et al. – Nutrients (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38892477/
Bischof K et al. – Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39060741/
Seong SH et al. – Journal of cosmetic dermatology (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37822045/
Rahman A et al. – Marine drugs (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38667776/
Shaik MI et al. – Journal of food science (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39126690/
Nulty CD et al. – American journal of physiology. Endocrinology and metabolism (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39259166/
Tran VVT et al. – Plastic and reconstructive surgery (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37400953/
Chen Q et al. – Advances in clinical and experimental medicine : official organ Wroclaw Medical University (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37248821/
Yang Y et al. – Frontiers in pharmacology (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39640483/
Sharma S et al. – Frontiers in endocrinology (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39257899/
Devasia et al — Cartilage (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/19476035231221211
Schulze et al — Int J Environ Res Public Health (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21060687
Vleminckx et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16458
Morakul et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16500
Kirmse et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000003519
Hilkens et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2023-0080
Alekseeva et al — Ter Arkh (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2024.05.202788
Pu et al. — meta-analysis (2023). [Meta-analysis (26 RCTs)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10180699/
Skin aging endpoints review (2023). [Narrative review]. General
Pu et al. — Nutrients (2023). [Systematic review & MA (26 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432180/
Jalili Z et al. – The British journal of nutrition (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35658958/
Laasri I et al. – International journal of biological macromolecules (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37806417/
Ustianowski Ł et al. – International journal of molecular sciences (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37047746/
Dumoulin et al. — Skin Pharmacol Physiol (2023). [RCT (double-blind)]. General
Liu T et al. – Journal of orthopaedic surgery and research (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37940992/
Chen R et al. – Archives of osteoporosis (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37169994/
Kviatkovsky et al — J Int Soc Sports Nutr (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/15502783.2023.2243252
Balshaw et al — Acta Physiol (Oxf) (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/apha.13903
Balshaw et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000003242
Santana et al — Wien Klin Wochenschr (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00508-022-02037-8
Chen et al — Nutr J (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-023-00837-w
Jerger et al — Eur J Sport Sci (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2023.2232758
Chen et al — Food Funct (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3fo02873a
Kuwaba et al — J Int Soc Sports Nutr (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/15502783.2023.2206392
Genovese et al — Int J Mol Sci (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241310996
Shiojima et al — J Am Nutr Assoc (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2021.2024466
Geahchan S et al. – Marine drugs (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35049916/
Lis DM et al. – International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34808597/
Noriega-González DC et al. – Nutrients (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35807843/
Su Y et al. – Annals of palliative medicine (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36367007/
DadeMatthews OO et al. – Complementary therapies in medicine (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35093509/
Jerger et al — Scand J Med Sci Sports (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.14164
Farì et al — Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871530321666210210153619
Kim et al — J Med Food (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2022.K.0097
Jacinto et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2021-0265
Lampropoulou-Adamidou et al — J Clin Densitom (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocd.2021.11.011
Schön et al — J Integr Complement Med (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1089/jicm.2021.0365
de Miranda et al. — Int J Dermatol (2021). [Systematic review & MA (19 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33742704/
Liu C – Medicine international (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36698868/
Subhan F et al. – Critical reviews in food science and nutrition (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32345036/
Michalak et al. — Int J Mol Sci (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34206767/
Fan L et al. – Medicine (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33546047/
Zdzieblik et al — Nutrients (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020523
Miyanaga et al — Skin Pharmacol Physiol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000513988
Lin et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.13500
Evans et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.13676
Wageh et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002641
Luo et al — J Orthop Traumatol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s10195-021-00572-0
Waluyo et al — J Rehabil Med (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2340/16501977-2835
Clark et al. — J Cosmet Dermatol (2020). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31846218/
Kjaer M et al. – The Journal of nutrition (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31897483/
Ocampo-Garza SS et al. – Dermatologic therapy (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32882083/
Oliviero et al — Reumatismo (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.4081/reumatismo.2020.1272
Žmitek et al — Nutrients (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030618
Oikawa et al — Am J Clin Nutr (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqz332
MacInnis et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2020-0009
Argyrou et al — J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32131366/
Cheng et al — Cartilage (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1177/1947603518798884
Skov et al. — J Cosmet Dermatol (2019). [Review]. General
Praet et al — Nutrients (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11010076
Alcock et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2019-0024
Skov et al — Nutrients (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051064
Maia Campos et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12893
Kirmse et al — Nutrients (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051154
Hao et al — Osteoarthritis Cartilage (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2018.10.009
Bricca et al — Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.23786
DePhillipo NN et al. – Orthopaedic journal of sports medicine (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30386805/
Czajka et al — Nutr Res (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2018.06.001
Dressler et al — J Sports Sci Med (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29769831/
Petersen Vitello Kalil et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12430
Huang et al — Osteoarthritis Cartilage (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2018.08.005
Ruff et al — Clin Interv Aging (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S153782
Tsuruta et al — Mol Med Rep (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2018.9396
Shaw G et al. – The American journal of clinical nutrition (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27852613/
Heaton LE et al. – Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28702900/
Jakobsen JR et al. – Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports (2017). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27781307/
Pullar JM et al. - Nutrients (2017). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28805671/
Zdzieblik et al — Appl Physiol Nutr Metab (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2016-0390
Taipale et al — BMC Genet (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12863-017-0585-4
Lugo et al — Nutr J (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-016-0130-8
Chmielewski et al — Am J Sports Med (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546515620583
Mcmurdo et al — Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.22724
Karsdal et al — Osteoarthritis Cartilage (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2014.12.019
Kanzaki et al — Clin Interv Aging (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S93077
Proksch et al. — Skin Pharmacol Physiol (2014). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23949208/
Choi SY et al. – Journal of cosmetic and laser therapy : official publication of the European Society for Laser Dermatology (2014). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24131075/
Harston A et al. – Knee surgery, sports traumatology, arthroscopy : official journal of the ESSKA (2012). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21695465/
Schagen et al. — Dermato-Endocrinol (2012). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23785655/
Verdier-Sévrain S – Climacteric : the journal of the International Menopause Society (2007). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17653955/
Verdier-Sévrain S et al. – Experimental dermatology (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16433679/
Inoue et al. — J Agric Food Chem (2005). [Controlled study]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16076145/
Raine-Fenning NJ et al. – American journal of clinical dermatology (2003). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12762829/
Hemilä H – The British journal of nutrition (1992). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1547201/
Kurban RS et al. – The Journal of dermatologic surgery and oncology (1990). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2229632/
Collagen peptide absorption — bioavailability (Established). [Mechanistic]. General
Combined beauty ingredient evidence (Multiple years). [Multiple ingredient evidence]. General
The Benefits of Molybdenum
Molybdenum
Bioavailable form
We use Sodium Molybdate, a highly bioavailable form of molybdenum that helps your body efficiently utilize this essential mineral.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to normal sulphur amino acid metabolism
- Essential cofactor for several important enzymes
- Supports the body's natural detoxification processes
- Involved in processing of purines and sulphites
Biochemistry Timeline
Molybdenum is efficiently absorbed in the small intestine, with absorption rates typically between 40 and 100%. It serves as a cofactor for enzymes including xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and sulphite oxidase. These enzymes work continuously in your body, and maintaining adequate molybdenum ensures they function normally.
Summary
Molybdenum is a trace mineral that most people have never heard of, yet it plays a quiet but important role. It serves as a cofactor for enzymes involved in processing waste products and sulfur-containing amino acids. Deficiency is extremely rare in people eating a varied diet, but it remains an essential part of the body's biochemistry.
FAQs
Do I need to supplement molybdenum?
For most people eating a varied diet, molybdenum deficiency is extremely rare. It is included in multivitamin formulas as a precaution to ensure all trace mineral needs are covered.
What foods contain molybdenum?
Legumes, grains, nuts, and leafy vegetables are good sources. The amount in plant foods depends on the soil in which they were grown.
Is molybdenum safe?
At doses found in supplements and food, molybdenum is very safe. The European tolerable upper intake level for adults is 600 micrograms per day.
Research
Yuan et al — ChemSusChem (2025). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.202402361
NIH Office of Dietary Supplements - Molybdenum Fact Sheet (2024). [Government Review]. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Molybdenum-HealthProfessional/
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The Benefits of Omega - 3
Omega - 3
Sustainably Sourced
Omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA) are essential fats that your body cannot produce on its own, meaning they must come from diet or supplementation. They are fundamental for heart health, brain function, and vision. We source high-quality, sustainably sourced omega-3 to provide meaningful amounts of both EPA and DHA in each serving.
Key Highlights
- EPA and DHA contribute to the normal function of the heart (EFSA approved, 250 mg/day)
- DHA contributes to the maintenance of normal brain function (EFSA approved, 250 mg/day)
- DHA contributes to the maintenance of normal vision (EFSA approved, 250 mg/day)
- DHA supports normal brain development in foetuses and breastfed infants (EFSA approved)
- Essential fats that the body cannot produce on its own
- Sustainably sourced, high-quality fish oil
Biochemistry Timeline
Omega-3 supplementation begins to influence cellular membrane composition within 2 to 4 weeks, though full tissue saturation (particularly in the brain and heart) may take 8 to 12 weeks. Consistent daily intake is important, as omega-3 levels reflect long-term dietary patterns rather than single doses.
The Omega-3 Index (a measure of EPA+DHA in red blood cell membranes) is increasingly used by researchers and clinicians to assess omega-3 status. An index of 8-12% is considered optimal, while below 4% is considered deficient. Most people in Northern Europe fall in the 4-6% range without supplementation.
Pregnancy and Infant Development
DHA is critically important during pregnancy and early life. It is a major building block of the developing brain and retina, with the most rapid accumulation occurring during the third trimester and the first two years of life.
EFSA recognises that maternal intake of DHA contributes to normal brain development of the foetus and breastfed infants (at an intake of 200 mg DHA in addition to the recommended 250 mg EPA+DHA). DHA intake by the mother also contributes to normal development of the eyes of the foetus and breastfed infants.
The Nordic Nutrition Recommendations support omega-3 supplementation during pregnancy, and many Nordic health authorities specifically recommend DHA for pregnant and breastfeeding women.
Mood and Emotional Well-being
Emerging research suggests that omega-3 fatty acids, particularly EPA, may play a supportive role in mood regulation. EPA is involved in the production of signalling molecules called eicosanoids, which influence inflammatory pathways that are linked to mood and emotional well-being.
While omega-3 supplementation is not a treatment for mood disorders, ensuring adequate EPA and DHA intake supports the brain's ability to function optimally. Several meta-analyses have found associations between higher omega-3 intake and better mood outcomes, though the evidence is still evolving.
For those interested in supporting both physical and emotional well-being, omega-3 supplementation offers a foundation backed by substantial research.
Summary
Omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA) are essential fats with well-documented benefits for heart health, brain function, and vision. European health authorities recognise specific benefits at intake levels of 250 mg EPA+DHA per day. For those who do not eat oily fish regularly, supplementation offers a practical and effective alternative.
DHA is particularly important during pregnancy and early development, supporting normal brain and eye development in the foetus and breastfed infant. Consistent daily intake over 8 to 12 weeks is recommended for optimal tissue saturation and long-term benefit.
FAQs
How much omega-3 should I take daily?
EFSA-approved health claims are based on a minimum of 250 mg of EPA and DHA combined per day for heart and brain benefits. For pregnant women, an additional 200 mg DHA is recommended. Your healthcare provider can advise on higher intakes if needed.
Can I get enough omega-3 from diet alone?
If you eat 2-3 portions of oily fish per week (salmon, mackerel, sardines, herring), you may meet your needs. However, many people in Northern Europe do not consume enough oily fish, making supplementation a practical choice.
What about plant-based omega-3 (ALA)?
ALA from flaxseed, chia seeds, and walnuts is a valuable nutrient, but the body converts it to EPA and DHA very inefficiently (typically less than 5%). For those following a plant-based diet, algal oil supplements provide pre-formed DHA from a vegan source.
Are there any side effects?
Omega-3 supplements are generally well-tolerated. Some people experience mild fishy aftertaste or digestive discomfort. Taking them with food and choosing high-quality, purified products helps minimise these effects.
Is omega-3 safe during pregnancy?
Yes, omega-3 (particularly DHA) is recommended during pregnancy and breastfeeding. It supports the baby's brain and eye development. Choose supplements tested for purity and contaminants, and follow your healthcare provider's dosage guidance.
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The Benefits of PABA
PABA
Para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) is a naturally occurring compound found in certain foods and sometimes classified as part of the B-vitamin family, though it is not a true vitamin. It is a component of folic acid and is found in foods like whole grains, eggs, and liver.
PABA has traditionally been included in B-complex formulas, where it complements the other B vitamins. While research on PABA's standalone benefits is limited, it has been studied in the context of skin health, hair pigmentation, and its role as a precursor in folic acid synthesis.
Key Highlights
- A natural component of the folic acid molecule
- Found in whole grains, eggs, liver, and brewer's yeast
- Traditionally included in comprehensive B-complex formulas
- Supports normal folic acid metabolism
Biochemistry Timeline
PABA is absorbed in the small intestine and is utilised by intestinal bacteria as a building block for folic acid synthesis. It is water-soluble and excess amounts are excreted through the kidneys. As a component of folic acid, PABA indirectly supports the many processes that depend on adequate folate status.
Summary
PABA is a naturally occurring compound that serves as a building block for folic acid. While not classified as an essential nutrient on its own, it complements B-complex formulas and supports the body's natural folate metabolism. It is found in many everyday foods and has a long history of safe use in supplements.
FAQs
Is PABA a vitamin?
PABA is sometimes referred to as vitamin B10, but it is not officially classified as a vitamin. It is a naturally occurring compound that forms part of the folic acid molecule and is found in many foods.
Why is PABA in B-complex supplements?
PABA has traditionally been included in comprehensive B-complex formulas because of its relationship to folic acid and its complementary role alongside the B vitamins. It supports the body's natural folate metabolism.
Research
Costa BA, Godoy RSM, Henrique-Gomes L et al. (2025). Dietary para-aminobenzoic acid, uric acid, and antibiotics modulate the susceptibility of Anopheles darlingi and Anopheles albimanus to Plasmodium berghei. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41409545/
Katano A, Mori A, Nonaka D et al. (2025). Biosynthesis of 2,5-pyridinedicarboxylate from glucose via p-aminobenzoic acid in Escherichia coli. Metab Eng. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40865792/
Ehrmann AK, Wronska AK, Perli T et al. (2024). Engineering Saccharomyces cerevisiae for fast vitamin-independent aerobic growth. Metab Eng. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38364997/
Dial CN, Speare L, Sharpe GC et al. (2021). Para-Aminobenzoic Acid, Calcium, and c-di-GMP Induce Formation of Cohesive, Syp-Polysaccharide-Dependent Biofilms in Vibrio fischeri. mBio. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34607467/
Li A, Wu Y, Pulli B et al. (2019). Myeloperoxidase Molecular MRI Reveals Synergistic Combination Therapy in Murine Experimental Autoimmune Neuroinflammation. Radiology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31478802/
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20 studies — PABA
Costa BA, Godoy RSM, Henrique-Gomes L et al. (2025). Dietary para-aminobenzoic acid, uric acid, and antibiotics modulate the susceptibility of Anopheles darlingi and Anopheles albimanus to Plasmodium berghei. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41409545/
Katano A, Mori A, Nonaka D et al. (2025). Biosynthesis of 2,5-pyridinedicarboxylate from glucose via p-aminobenzoic acid in Escherichia coli. Metab Eng. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40865792/
Ehrmann AK, Wronska AK, Perli T et al. (2024). Engineering Saccharomyces cerevisiae for fast vitamin-independent aerobic growth. Metab Eng. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38364997/
Dial CN, Speare L, Sharpe GC et al. (2021). Para-Aminobenzoic Acid, Calcium, and c-di-GMP Induce Formation of Cohesive, Syp-Polysaccharide-Dependent Biofilms in Vibrio fischeri. mBio. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34607467/
Li A, Wu Y, Pulli B et al. (2019). Myeloperoxidase Molecular MRI Reveals Synergistic Combination Therapy in Murine Experimental Autoimmune Neuroinflammation. Radiology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31478802/
Xiao X, Saha P, Yeoh BS et al. (2018). Myeloperoxidase deficiency attenuates systemic and dietary iron-induced adverse effects. J Nutr Biochem. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30218980/
Virk B, Jia J, Maynard CA et al. (2016). Folate Acts in E. coli to Accelerate C. elegans Aging Independently of Bacterial Biosynthesis. Cell Rep. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26876180/
Duberley KE, Heales SJ, Abramov AY et al. (2014). Effect of Coenzyme Q10 supplementation on mitochondrial electron transport chain activity and mitochondrial oxidative stress in Coenzyme Q10 deficient human neuronal cells. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24534273/
Platteeuw JJ (2006). Resistance to sulphadrug-based antifolate therapy in malaria: are we looking in the right place?. Trop Med Int Health [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16772001/
Asrar FM, O'Connor DL (2005). Bacterially synthesized folate and supplemental folic acid are absorbed across the large intestine of piglets. J Nutr Biochem. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16081276/
Sonwalkar SA, Holbrook IB, Phillips I et al. (2003). A prospective, comparative study of the para-aminobenzoic acid test and faecal elastase 1 in the assessment of exocrine pancreatic function. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12562462/
Ray SD, Balasubramanian G, Bagchi D et al. (2001). Ca(2+)-calmodulin antagonist chlorpromazine and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase modulators 4-aminobenzamide and nicotinamide influence hepatic expression of BCL-XL and P53 and protect against acetaminophen-induced programmed and unprogrammed cell death in mice. Free Radic Biol Med. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11461765/
Gregory JF 3rd, Caudill MA, Opalko FJ et al. (2001). Kinetics of folate turnover in pregnant women (second trimester) and nonpregnant controls during folic acid supplementation: stable-isotopic labeling of plasma folate, urinary folate and folate catabolites shows subtle effects of pregnancy on turnover of folate pools. J Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11435509/
Higgins JR, Quinlivan EP, McPartlin J et al. (2000). The relationship between increased folate catabolism and the increased requirement for folate in pregnancy. BJOG. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11002960/
Bruno MJ, Borm JJ, Hoek FJ et al. (1997). Comparative effects of enteric-coated pancreatin microsphere therapy after conventional and pylorus-preserving pancreatoduodenectomy. Br J Surg. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9240133/
Weinberg JM, Roeser NF, Davis JA et al. (1997). Glycine-protected, hypoxic, proximal tubules develop severely compromised energetic function. Kidney Int. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9211356/
Upton SJ, Tilley M, Brillhart DB (1995). Effects of select medium supplements on in vitro development of Cryptosporidium parvum in HCT-8 cells. J Clin Microbiol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7714194/
Shamberger RC, Hendren WH, Leichtner AM (1994). Long-term nutritional and metabolic consequences of pancreaticoduodenectomy in children. Surgery. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7907435/
Lamers CB, Jansen JB, Hafkenscheid JC et al. (1990). Evaluation of tests of exocrine and endocrine pancreatic function in older patients with cystic fibrosis. Pancreas. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1688391/
Gilks CF, Jarra W, Harvey-Wood K et al. (1989). Host diet in experimental rodent malaria: a variable which can compromise experimental design and interpretation. Parasitology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2668862/
The Benefits of Parsley Leaf
Parsley Leaf
Parsley Leaf is included for its traditional use in wellness and to provide additional natural plant compounds that complement the primary ingredients.
Key Highlights
- Rich in vitamin K, supporting normal blood clotting
- Contains vitamin C and natural antioxidant flavonoids
- Provides the flavonoid apigenin, studied for cellular health
- A culinary herb with well-documented nutritional value
Biochemistry Timeline
The nutrients and flavonoids in parsley are absorbed through normal digestive processes. Vitamin K from parsley is fat-soluble and best absorbed alongside dietary fats. The flavonoids, including apigenin and luteolin, are metabolised in the gut and liver, contributing to antioxidant activity over time.
Summary
Parsley is far more than a garnish. This common herb is surprisingly nutrient-dense, providing meaningful amounts of vitamin K, vitamin C, and flavonoids. In concentrated extract form, parsley delivers these compounds in quantities that would be difficult to achieve through culinary use alone.
FAQs
Why is parsley included in a supplement?
Parsley provides concentrated vitamin K and flavonoids like apigenin in extract form. These compounds contribute to normal blood clotting and antioxidant defence.
Is parsley extract safe for everyone?
Parsley extract is generally safe at recommended doses. However, because of its vitamin K content, individuals taking blood-thinning medications (like warfarin) should consult their healthcare provider before taking concentrated parsley supplements.
Research
Ussen S, Vesselova P, Kudabayeva G et al. (2026). Integrative taxonomic study of the genus Arthrophytum Schrenk (Amaranthaceae s.l.) in the deserts of Kazakhstan. Braz J Biol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41849528/
Rednic I, Stănciulescu EC, Biţă A et al. (2026). Antioxidant and Neuroprotective Potential of Some Edible Fruits and Vegetable Extracts Based on Comparative Phytochemical Profiling and Bioactivity. Plants (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41829861/
Malabusini S, Hidalgo A, Noquet P et al. (2026). Susceptibility of Cooking Herbs to Stored-Product Moths. Insects. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41752543/
Živković J, Petrović J, El Fadili M et al. (2026). Optimizing Antibacterial Essential Oil Blends from Helichrysum plicatum, Petroselinum crispum, and Origanum vulgare for Dairy Preservation: Mixture Design and In Silico Analysis. Foods. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41750865/
El-Bahr SM, Elbakery AM, El-Gazzar N et al. (2026). RETRACTED: El-Bahr et al. Biosynthesized Iron Oxide Nanoparticles from Petroselinum crispum Leaf Extract Mitigate Lead-Acetate-Induced Anemia in Male Albino Rats: Hematological, Biochemical and Histopathological Features. Toxics 2021, 9, 123. Toxics. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41746270/
Yıkmış S, Tokatlı Demirok N, Duman Altan A et al. (2026). ThermoMicrowave-sonication improves the stability and digestive bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds in parsley juice. Food Chem X. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41510132/
Premnath V, Veerappapillai S (2026). Polypharmacological Exploration of Petroselinum Crispum for Antifibrotic Therapeutics: from Herb to Hepatoprotection. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41493519/
Qian Y, Ding X, Guo X et al. (2025). Apiin Promotes Healthy Aging in C. elegans Through Nutritional Activation of DAF-16/FOXO, Enhancing Fatty Acid Catabolism and Oxidative Stress Resistance. Int J Mol Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41465315/
Singh L, Kalia R, Sharma S et al. (2026). Apigenin as a multifunctional flavone against liver fibrosis: mechanistic insights into its modulation of key fibrogenic signalling pathways. 3 Biotech. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41431714/
Zhou M, Mao X, Zou LE et al. (2026). Natural Dietary Flavonoid Apigenin Mitigates Ulcerative Colitis via Modulating the AMPK/NF-κB/NLRP3 Signaling Axis. J Agric Food Chem. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41428381/
Abu-Okail A, Aljohani ASM, Mousa AM et al. (2025). Green-synthesized silver nanoparticles from edible plant extracts ameliorate cadmium chloride-induced hepatorenal and testicular toxicity in rats. Front Cell Dev Biol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41403697/
Peng Y, Zhou H, Sun Y et al. (2025). Overcoming the Low Bioavailability of Apigenin: The Therapeutic Efficacy for Androgenetic Alopecia Through Topical Administration. Food Sci Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41323822/
Bunggulawa EJ, Lee YK (2025). Metabolite contents identification and in vitro antioxidant activity of N-hexane fraction and ethanolic extract from parsley (Petroselinum crispum) cultivated in South Korea. Nat Prod Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41269233/
Balkrishna A, Rana M, Mishra S et al. (2025). Exploring the therapeutic potential of phytochemicals apigenin and ellagic acid in managing polycystic ovarian syndrome and its comorbidities: a comprehensive review. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41268159/
Sitarek-Andrzejczyk M, Dobrzyński J, Orliński P et al. (2025). Balancing yield and stability: optimizing leaf pigment extraction to minimize chlorophyll degradation. Planta. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41238833/
15 studies — Parsley Leaf
Ussen S, Vesselova P, Kudabayeva G et al. (2026). Integrative taxonomic study of the genus Arthrophytum Schrenk (Amaranthaceae s.l.) in the deserts of Kazakhstan. Braz J Biol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41849528/
Rednic I, Stănciulescu EC, Biţă A et al. (2026). Antioxidant and Neuroprotective Potential of Some Edible Fruits and Vegetable Extracts Based on Comparative Phytochemical Profiling and Bioactivity. Plants (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41829861/
Malabusini S, Hidalgo A, Noquet P et al. (2026). Susceptibility of Cooking Herbs to Stored-Product Moths. Insects. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41752543/
Živković J, Petrović J, El Fadili M et al. (2026). Optimizing Antibacterial Essential Oil Blends from Helichrysum plicatum, Petroselinum crispum, and Origanum vulgare for Dairy Preservation: Mixture Design and In Silico Analysis. Foods. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41750865/
El-Bahr SM, Elbakery AM, El-Gazzar N et al. (2026). RETRACTED: El-Bahr et al. Biosynthesized Iron Oxide Nanoparticles from Petroselinum crispum Leaf Extract Mitigate Lead-Acetate-Induced Anemia in Male Albino Rats: Hematological, Biochemical and Histopathological Features. Toxics 2021, 9, 123. Toxics. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41746270/
Yıkmış S, Tokatlı Demirok N, Duman Altan A et al. (2026). ThermoMicrowave-sonication improves the stability and digestive bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds in parsley juice. Food Chem X. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41510132/
Premnath V, Veerappapillai S (2026). Polypharmacological Exploration of Petroselinum Crispum for Antifibrotic Therapeutics: from Herb to Hepatoprotection. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41493519/
Qian Y, Ding X, Guo X et al. (2025). Apiin Promotes Healthy Aging in C. elegans Through Nutritional Activation of DAF-16/FOXO, Enhancing Fatty Acid Catabolism and Oxidative Stress Resistance. Int J Mol Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41465315/
Singh L, Kalia R, Sharma S et al. (2026). Apigenin as a multifunctional flavone against liver fibrosis: mechanistic insights into its modulation of key fibrogenic signalling pathways. 3 Biotech. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41431714/
Zhou M, Mao X, Zou LE et al. (2026). Natural Dietary Flavonoid Apigenin Mitigates Ulcerative Colitis via Modulating the AMPK/NF-κB/NLRP3 Signaling Axis. J Agric Food Chem. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41428381/
Abu-Okail A, Aljohani ASM, Mousa AM et al. (2025). Green-synthesized silver nanoparticles from edible plant extracts ameliorate cadmium chloride-induced hepatorenal and testicular toxicity in rats. Front Cell Dev Biol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41403697/
Peng Y, Zhou H, Sun Y et al. (2025). Overcoming the Low Bioavailability of Apigenin: The Therapeutic Efficacy for Androgenetic Alopecia Through Topical Administration. Food Sci Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41323822/
Bunggulawa EJ, Lee YK (2025). Metabolite contents identification and in vitro antioxidant activity of N-hexane fraction and ethanolic extract from parsley (Petroselinum crispum) cultivated in South Korea. Nat Prod Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41269233/
Balkrishna A, Rana M, Mishra S et al. (2025). Exploring the therapeutic potential of phytochemicals apigenin and ellagic acid in managing polycystic ovarian syndrome and its comorbidities: a comprehensive review. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41268159/
Sitarek-Andrzejczyk M, Dobrzyński J, Orliński P et al. (2025). Balancing yield and stability: optimizing leaf pigment extraction to minimize chlorophyll degradation. Planta. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41238833/
The Benefits of Phosphorus
Phosphorus
Dual-Mineral Form
We use Dicalcium Phosphate as a dual-action source of calcium and phosphorus, two minerals essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth.
Key Highlights
- Supports strong bones and teeth alongside calcium
- Plays a central role in energy production (ATP)
- Helps maintain normal cell membrane structure
- Contributes to acid-base balance in the body
Biochemistry Timeline
Phosphorus is absorbed primarily in the small intestine, with effects beginning within hours of intake. As the second most abundant mineral in your body, it works continuously alongside calcium to maintain bone density. Noticeable improvements in energy metabolism and bone health typically develop over several weeks of consistent, adequate intake.
Summary
Phosphorus is essential for bone formation, energy metabolism, and cell function. It works closely with calcium, and most people get enough through a varied diet. Supplementation is rarely needed but can be relevant in specific situations where dietary intake is limited.
FAQs
Who might benefit from phosphorus supplementation?
Most people get adequate phosphorus from their diet, as it is found in many foods. Supplementation may be considered for individuals with certain medical conditions that affect phosphorus absorption, but this should always be discussed with a healthcare provider.
Can you take too much phosphorus?
Yes, excessive phosphorus intake, particularly from processed foods, can disrupt the calcium-phosphorus balance. It is important to maintain a healthy ratio between the two minerals for optimal bone health.
What foods are rich in phosphorus?
Good dietary sources include dairy products, meat, fish, eggs, nuts, seeds, and whole grains. A balanced diet typically provides sufficient phosphorus.
Research
Max F, Tesař T, Gažová A et al. (2026). Impact of High Doses of Vitamin D on Specific Metabolic Parameters in Type 2 Diabetes Patients: A Prospective Biomedical Study. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41873102/
Zhu J, Hu Z, Xu H et al. (2026). Stage-dependent effects of composite probiotics on gut mineral transport, Skeletal health, and egg quality in laying hens. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41833116/
Al-Talib SA, Jan Mohamed HJ, Mitra AK et al. (2026). Impact of an Oral Nutrition Supplement on the Nutritional Status of Stunted and At-Risk of Stunting Children: A Community-Based Intervention Trial. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41829924/
Lepczyński A, Herosimczyk A, Ożgo M et al. (2026). Inulin and multispecies probiotic effects on blood, liver and kidney biochemistry and metabolic and stress-related gene expression in pigs. Sci Rep. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41826623/
Hamid MMA, Tharwat M, Ebeid TA et al. (2026). Nutritional Disorders and Metabolic Adaptations in Dromedary Camels: Insights into Foregut Fermentation and Mineral Balance. Animals (Basel) [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41751150/
Saber HS, Khalil HA, El-Kashef MMA et al. (2026). Synergistic impacts of garlic and curcumin on growth performance, carcass characteristics, immunity, antioxidant status, and gut histology of broiler chickens. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41723958/
Guo Y, Zheng T, Wang M et al. (2026). Effects of glucose oxidase combined with clostridium butyricum on broiler growth performance, nutrient digestibility, antioxidant function, intestinal barrier, and intestinal microbiota. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41713094/
Zhang F, Yang L, Wang Q et al. (2026). Calcium yak caseinate promotes calcium absorption to prevent osteoporosis in mice. J Dairy Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41698576/
Muzzammil M, Qadir A, Minhas MO et al. (2026). Vitamin D deficiency and musculoskeletal pain intensity in young women: Evidence from a cross-sectional study in Karachi. Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41698307/
Zhao L, Chen F, Zhang H et al. (2026). Dietary Fish Oil and a Flavor and Multi-Enzyme Complex Supplementation Improved the Reproductive Performance, Nutrient Metabolism and Health of Primiparous Lactating Sows and Piglets. Animals (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41681362/
Gordon L, Zipursky R, Cheung CC et al. (2026). Vitamin D Intoxication in an Adolescent due to Over-Supplementation: A Case Report and Review of Literature. AACE Endocrinol Diabetes. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41641290/
Alalwani YJ, Alatta MA, Almana KA et al. (2026). Interventions for metabolic bone disease of prematurity: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Metabol Open. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41625559/
Zhang L, Chen M, Behan AA et al. (2026). Phytase as a functional feed additive for poultry: mechanistic insights into thermoregulation and productive performance. Int J Biometeorol [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41603980/
Gang G, Gao R, Tong M et al. (2026). Effect of Water Extract of Artemisia annua L. on Growth Performance, Blood Biochemical Parameters and Intestinal-Related Indices in Mutton Sheep. Animals (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41594527/
Candow DG, Pratt J, Fabiano N et al. (2026). Creatine Supplementation and the Brain: Have We Put the Cart Before the Horse?. J Diet Suppl [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41556609/
Costa EP, Sarandy MM, Lozi AA et al. (2026). Cow's Milk Positively Impacts Bone Formation by Regulating the Osteocalcin Pathway Compared to Transgenic and Non-Transgenic Soy-Based Beverages in BALB/c Mice. Mol Nutr Food Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41543320/
Mahdavi R, Piray AH, Ghazi S et al. (2026). Efficacy of Supplementary Guanidinoacetic Acid at Different Dietary Crude Protein Levels on the Productive Performance, Egg Quality, Intestinal Morphology, Antioxidative Status, and Serum Metabolites of Aged Laying Hens Exposed to High Ambient Temperatures. Vet Med Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41532277/
Gultekin O, Akpolat AO, Illeez OG et al. (2026). Is vitamin D a risk factor in the development of Scheuermann's kyphosis?. J Pediatr Orthop B. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41531267/
Umar Faruk M, Cowieson AJ, Aureli R et al. (2026). Protease supplementation in diets with varying crude protein levels: effects on production performance and blood biochemistry of aged laying hens. Br Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41503715/
Walia A, Selvarajan R, Ogola HJO et al. (2025). Genome-resolved analysis of traditional fermented biofertilizers as scalable solutions for soil restoration. Front Microbiol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41531535/
20 studies — Phosphorus
Max F, Tesař T, Gažová A et al. (2026). Impact of High Doses of Vitamin D on Specific Metabolic Parameters in Type 2 Diabetes Patients: A Prospective Biomedical Study. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41873102/
Zhu J, Hu Z, Xu H et al. (2026). Stage-dependent effects of composite probiotics on gut mineral transport, Skeletal health, and egg quality in laying hens. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41833116/
Al-Talib SA, Jan Mohamed HJ, Mitra AK et al. (2026). Impact of an Oral Nutrition Supplement on the Nutritional Status of Stunted and At-Risk of Stunting Children: A Community-Based Intervention Trial. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41829924/
Lepczyński A, Herosimczyk A, Ożgo M et al. (2026). Inulin and multispecies probiotic effects on blood, liver and kidney biochemistry and metabolic and stress-related gene expression in pigs. Sci Rep. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41826623/
Hamid MMA, Tharwat M, Ebeid TA et al. (2026). Nutritional Disorders and Metabolic Adaptations in Dromedary Camels: Insights into Foregut Fermentation and Mineral Balance. Animals (Basel) [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41751150/
Saber HS, Khalil HA, El-Kashef MMA et al. (2026). Synergistic impacts of garlic and curcumin on growth performance, carcass characteristics, immunity, antioxidant status, and gut histology of broiler chickens. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41723958/
Guo Y, Zheng T, Wang M et al. (2026). Effects of glucose oxidase combined with clostridium butyricum on broiler growth performance, nutrient digestibility, antioxidant function, intestinal barrier, and intestinal microbiota. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41713094/
Zhang F, Yang L, Wang Q et al. (2026). Calcium yak caseinate promotes calcium absorption to prevent osteoporosis in mice. J Dairy Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41698576/
Muzzammil M, Qadir A, Minhas MO et al. (2026). Vitamin D deficiency and musculoskeletal pain intensity in young women: Evidence from a cross-sectional study in Karachi. Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41698307/
Zhao L, Chen F, Zhang H et al. (2026). Dietary Fish Oil and a Flavor and Multi-Enzyme Complex Supplementation Improved the Reproductive Performance, Nutrient Metabolism and Health of Primiparous Lactating Sows and Piglets. Animals (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41681362/
Gordon L, Zipursky R, Cheung CC et al. (2026). Vitamin D Intoxication in an Adolescent due to Over-Supplementation: A Case Report and Review of Literature. AACE Endocrinol Diabetes. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41641290/
Alalwani YJ, Alatta MA, Almana KA et al. (2026). Interventions for metabolic bone disease of prematurity: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Metabol Open. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41625559/
Zhang L, Chen M, Behan AA et al. (2026). Phytase as a functional feed additive for poultry: mechanistic insights into thermoregulation and productive performance. Int J Biometeorol [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41603980/
Gang G, Gao R, Tong M et al. (2026). Effect of Water Extract of Artemisia annua L. on Growth Performance, Blood Biochemical Parameters and Intestinal-Related Indices in Mutton Sheep. Animals (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41594527/
Candow DG, Pratt J, Fabiano N et al. (2026). Creatine Supplementation and the Brain: Have We Put the Cart Before the Horse?. J Diet Suppl [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41556609/
Costa EP, Sarandy MM, Lozi AA et al. (2026). Cow's Milk Positively Impacts Bone Formation by Regulating the Osteocalcin Pathway Compared to Transgenic and Non-Transgenic Soy-Based Beverages in BALB/c Mice. Mol Nutr Food Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41543320/
Mahdavi R, Piray AH, Ghazi S et al. (2026). Efficacy of Supplementary Guanidinoacetic Acid at Different Dietary Crude Protein Levels on the Productive Performance, Egg Quality, Intestinal Morphology, Antioxidative Status, and Serum Metabolites of Aged Laying Hens Exposed to High Ambient Temperatures. Vet Med Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41532277/
Gultekin O, Akpolat AO, Illeez OG et al. (2026). Is vitamin D a risk factor in the development of Scheuermann's kyphosis?. J Pediatr Orthop B. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41531267/
Umar Faruk M, Cowieson AJ, Aureli R et al. (2026). Protease supplementation in diets with varying crude protein levels: effects on production performance and blood biochemistry of aged laying hens. Br Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41503715/
Walia A, Selvarajan R, Ogola HJO et al. (2025). Genome-resolved analysis of traditional fermented biofertilizers as scalable solutions for soil restoration. Front Microbiol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41531535/
The Benefits of Probiotics
Probiotics
Antioxidant
Probiotics are live beneficial microorganisms that, when consumed in adequate amounts, support a healthy gut microbiome. They play an important role in digestive comfort, immune regulation, and the overall balance of the gut ecosystem. We use well-researched strains from the Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium families, which have the strongest evidence base for digestive and immune health.
Key Highlights
- Supports digestive comfort and reduces bloating (meta-analyses)
- Well-researched Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains
- Supports immune function (70% of immune system is gut-based)
- May help prevent recurrent urinary tract infections
- Multi-strain, high-dose formulations show strongest evidence
- Safe with no serious adverse events reported in meta-analyses
Biochemistry Timeline
Probiotic benefits can begin within 1 to 2 weeks for digestive comfort, with bloating and regularity often improving first. Immune benefits develop with consistent use over 4 to 8 weeks as the gut microbiome stabilises.
Probiotics are transient residents of the gut: they exert their benefits while being consumed but do not permanently colonise the digestive tract. This means consistent daily intake is important for sustained benefits. Taking probiotics with or just before a meal can improve survival through stomach acid.
Gut-Brain Connection
The gut and brain communicate through the gut-brain axis, a bidirectional network involving the vagus nerve, neurotransmitters, and immune signalling. The gut microbiome influences this communication, which is why it has been called the "second brain."
Emerging research suggests that certain probiotic strains may support mood, stress resilience, and cognitive function through this gut-brain pathway. While the field is still developing, the connection between gut health and mental well-being is well-established, and probiotic supplementation is one way to support this relationship.
Antibiotic Recovery
Antibiotics, while often necessary, can significantly disrupt the gut microbiome by eliminating beneficial bacteria alongside harmful ones. This can lead to digestive discomfort, diarrhoea, and reduced microbial diversity.
Probiotic supplementation during and after antibiotic courses can help replenish beneficial bacteria and reduce antibiotic-associated digestive issues. When taking probiotics alongside antibiotics, it is best to separate them by at least 2 hours to avoid the antibiotic directly affecting the probiotic bacteria.
Summary
Probiotics are live beneficial microorganisms that support digestive comfort, immune function, and overall gut health. Meta-analyses consistently show benefits for bloating, IBS symptoms, and quality of life, with multi-strain, high-dose formulations performing best.
The gut microbiome influences far more than digestion, connecting to immune function, mood, and urinary health. Consistent daily supplementation is important, as probiotics are transient and do not permanently colonise the gut. Benefits typically begin within 1 to 2 weeks for digestive comfort.
FAQs
Do I need to take probiotics every day?
Yes, for sustained benefits. Probiotics are transient, meaning they work while you are taking them but do not permanently colonise the gut. Daily use maintains a consistent presence of beneficial bacteria in your digestive system.
Can I take probiotics with antibiotics?
Yes, and it is often recommended. Take probiotics at least 2 hours apart from antibiotics to avoid the antibiotic directly affecting the probiotic bacteria. Continue probiotic supplementation for at least 2 weeks after completing the antibiotic course.
Are all probiotic strains the same?
No, different strains have different effects. Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium are the most well-researched for digestive and immune health. Look for products that specify the exact strains used and their colony-forming unit (CFU) count.
Should I take probiotics with food?
Taking probiotics with or just before a meal can improve their survival through stomach acid. The food helps buffer the acidic environment and provides nutrients for the bacteria.
Are probiotics safe during pregnancy?
Probiotics are generally considered safe during pregnancy. Some research suggests they may support maternal digestive comfort and immune health. Consult your healthcare provider for guidance on appropriate strains and dosages.
Research
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Kristensen NB et al. — Genome Med (2016). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27899116/
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Szajewska et al — J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr (2016). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1097/MPG.0000000000001081
Allen et al — Transl Psychiatry (2016). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2016.191
Cheung et al — Trop Med Int Health (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12650
Miller et al — World J Gastroenterol (2016). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v22.i21.5122
Bogovič Matijašić et al — J Dairy Sci (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2015-10743
Baştürk et al — Turk J Gastroenterol (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.5152/tjg.2016.16301
Goldenberg et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2015). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004827.pub4
Tang et al — J Allergy Clin Immunol (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2014.11.034
Dotterud et al — J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/MPG.0000000000000781
Ten Bruggencate et al — Eur J Clin Nutr (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2014.238
Langkamp-Henken et al — Br J Nutr (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114514003997
Eskesen et al — Br J Nutr (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114515003347
Cruchet et al — Paediatr Drugs (2015). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40272-015-0124-6
Szajewska et al — Aliment Pharmacol Ther (2015). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.13344
McFarland et al — Benef Microbes (2015). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3920/BM2014.0034
Dimidi et al. — Am J Clin Nutr (2014). [Systematic review & MA (14 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25099542/
Hill C et al. — Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol (2014). [Expert consensus]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24912386/
The Benefits of Rosehip Fruit Extract
Rosehip Fruit Extract
Rosehip Fruit Extract is included as it contains naturally occuring Vitamin C and it is rich in bioflavonoids and antioxidants.
Key Highlights
- Naturally rich in vitamin C and carotenoids
- Contains galactolipids studied for joint comfort
- Provides natural antioxidant protection
- A traditional Nordic botanical with centuries of use
Biochemistry Timeline
Rosehip's vitamin C and polyphenols are absorbed within hours of ingestion. The galactolipids, which are the compounds most studied for joint health, appear to need several weeks of consistent intake before noticeable effects. Clinical studies typically report improvements in comfort after 3 to 4 weeks of daily use.
Summary
Rosehip, the fruit of the wild rose plant, is a Scandinavian staple that has been used in Nordic kitchens and herbal traditions for generations. Rich in vitamin C, carotenoids, and unique galactolipids, rosehip offers a combination of nutritional and bioactive compounds. Research has particularly focused on its potential role in supporting joint comfort and flexibility.
FAQs
What is the difference between rosehip and rose hip oil?
Rosehip fruit extract, used in supplements, is derived from the whole fruit and contains vitamin C, polyphenols, and galactolipids. Rose hip oil, used in skincare, is pressed from the seeds and is rich in essential fatty acids.
How long before I notice benefits from rosehip?
Research suggests that rosehip's effects on joint comfort typically become noticeable after 3 to 4 weeks of consistent daily intake.
Research
Anghel N et al. — Polymers (2025). [Material science]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40574234/
Belkhelladi M & Bougrine A — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37605366/
Oargă Porumb DP et al. — Front Pharmacol (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38666029/
Negrean OR et al. — Heliyon (2024). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38765085/
Truong VL & Jeong WS — Prev Nutr Food Sci (2023). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38188083/
Igual M et al. — Molecules (2022). [Analytical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35897912/
Pekacar S et al. — Curr Mol Pharmacol (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34348637/
Gruenwald J et al. — Phytomedicine (2019). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31138475/
Cheng BC et al. — Pharmacol Res (2016). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27816506/
Ginnerup-Nielsen E et al. — Gait Posture (2015). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26234471/
Vitamin C content — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
Anti-inflammatory mechanism — established (Established). [Established science].
12 studies — Rosehip Fruit Extract
Anghel N et al. — Polymers (2025). [Material science]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40574234/
Belkhelladi M & Bougrine A — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37605366/
Oargă Porumb DP et al. — Front Pharmacol (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38666029/
Negrean OR et al. — Heliyon (2024). [Comprehensive review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38765085/
Truong VL & Jeong WS — Prev Nutr Food Sci (2023). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38188083/
Igual M et al. — Molecules (2022). [Analytical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35897912/
Pekacar S et al. — Curr Mol Pharmacol (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34348637/
Gruenwald J et al. — Phytomedicine (2019). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31138475/
Cheng BC et al. — Pharmacol Res (2016). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27816506/
Ginnerup-Nielsen E et al. — Gait Posture (2015). [RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26234471/
Vitamin C content — established (Established). [Nutritional data].
Anti-inflammatory mechanism — established (Established). [Established science].
The Benefits of Saw Palmetto
Saw Palmetto
Botanical Extract
Saw Palmetto (Serenoa repens) is a palm plant native to the southeastern United States whose berries have been traditionally used for prostate and urinary health. It is one of the most commonly used herbal supplements for prostate support, though the evidence base is mixed and we believe in being transparent about what the research shows.
Key Highlights
- Traditional use for prostate and urinary health
- Proposed mechanism: 5-alpha reductase inhibition (reduces DHT)
- Mixed evidence overall (Cochrane 2012: no significant pooled benefit)
- Some individual trials show modest positive results
- Excellent safety profile with no serious adverse events
- BPH affects ~50% of men by age 50
Biochemistry Timeline
Saw palmetto supplementation typically requires 4 to 8 weeks to assess any response. Standard doses are 160-320 mg/day of standardised extract (containing 85-95% fatty acids and sterols). Individual responses vary, and those who experience benefit typically notice gradual improvement in urinary comfort over 1 to 3 months.
Hair Health
Because DHT is implicated in androgenic hair loss (pattern hair thinning), saw palmetto has been studied as a natural alternative for hair support. Some small studies suggest modest benefits, but the evidence is limited. For those interested in a gentle, natural approach to hair health alongside other nutrients, saw palmetto may be worth exploring.
Anti-inflammatory Properties
Saw palmetto extract contains anti-inflammatory compounds that may help reduce inflammation in prostate and urinary tract tissue. This anti-inflammatory activity may contribute to any benefits experienced for urinary comfort, independent of the DHT mechanism.
Summary
Saw Palmetto is a traditional herbal supplement for prostate and urinary health. While the proposed mechanism (DHT reduction via 5-alpha reductase inhibition) is biologically plausible and the safety profile is excellent, the overall pooled evidence from clinical trials is mixed. We include it for its traditional value and individual benefit potential, while being honest that large-scale reviews have not confirmed significant group-level improvements.
FAQs
Does saw palmetto actually work?
The evidence is mixed. A Cochrane review found no significant pooled benefit, but some individual studies and clinical experience suggest certain people respond well. It has an excellent safety profile, making it a low-risk option to try.
How much should I take?
Standard doses are 160-320 mg/day of standardised extract. Allow 4-8 weeks to assess your individual response.
Are there any interactions?
Saw palmetto may interact with hormone-related medications and blood thinners. Consult your healthcare provider if you take regular medication.
Is saw palmetto only for men?
While primarily studied for prostate health, the DHT-reducing mechanism is relevant for both men and women experiencing androgenic hair concerns. Consult your healthcare provider for personalised guidance.
Research
Ablon G – Journal of cosmetic dermatology (2026). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41652806/
Bevilacqua et al — Prostate (2026). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/pros.70071
Ablon — J Cosmet Dermatol (2025). [RCT (double-blind)].
Milani M et al. – Journal of cosmetic dermatology (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40853071/
Zhou L et al. – Frontiers in nutrition (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41561175/
Ablon G – Journal of cosmetic dermatology (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41319217/
Ahmed A et al. — Skin Appendage Disord (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40771449/
Kimura et al — Nutr Health (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/02601060241265389
Nestor et al. — Complement Ther Dermatol (2024). [Review].
Franco JVA et al. — World J Mens Health (2024). [Updated Cochrane review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38164033/
Lee et al — Investig Clin Urol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.4111/icu.20240191
Franco JVA et al. — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2023). [Cochrane SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37345871/
Sudeep HV et al. — Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol (2023). [Clinical trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38021422/
EFSA — Novel Food status (2022). [Regulatory assessment]. Regulatory / Foundational
Blair HA — Drugs Aging (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35237936/
Yamada et al — Nutrients (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14061190
Lok et al — Asian J Surg (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asjsur.2022.01.038
Russo GI et al. – European urology focus (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31952967/
Paulis G et al. – Archivio italiano di urologia, andrologia : organo ufficiale [di] Societa italiana di ecografia urologica e nefrologica (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34933534/
Trivisonno LF et al. – Investigative and clinical urology (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34488251/
Zhang et al — World J Urol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00345-020-03577-2
Evron et al. — Skin Appendage Disord (2020). [Systematic review].
Cai T et al. – American journal of men's health (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32274957/
Evron E et al. — Skin Appendage Disord (2020). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33313047/
Sudeep et al — BMC Urol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12894-020-00648-9
Ye et al. — Medicine (2019). [Meta-analysis (27 RCTs)]. General
Kwon Y - Integrative Medicine Research (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30662839/
Das et al — Clin Nutr ESPEN (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnesp.2019.07.015
Cannarella et al — Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_201904_17595
Macchione et al — Antiinflamm Antiallergy Agents Med Chem (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871523018666181128164252
Chiancone et al — Urol Int (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000502765
Gravas et al — World J Urol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00345-018-2409-1
Ye et al — Urology (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2019.02.030
Ibishev et al — Urologiia (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31184016/
Zong et al — Zhonghua Nan Ke Xue (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32223093/
Vela-Navarrete et al. — Eur Urol (2018). [Review]. General
Vela-Navarrete R et al. - European Urology (2018). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29751088/
Vela-Navarrete R et al. – BJU international (2018). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29694707/
Morgia et al — BJU Int (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/bju.14209
Zhu et al — Zhonghua Nan Ke Xue (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30173449/
Rossi et al — J Dermatolog Treat (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546634.2017.1341610
Novara G et al. - BJU International (2016). [Systematic Review]. Prostate Health
Tacklind et al. — Cochrane Review (2012). [Cochrane SR (32 RCTs)]. General
Tacklind J et al. - Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2012). [Cochrane Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23235581/
Rossi et al. — Nat Prod Res (2012). [Mechanistic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21854111/
Barry MJ et al. - JAMA (CAMUS) (2011). [Landmark RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21954478/
Tacklind J et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2009). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19370565/
Wilt T et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2000). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10796790/
BPH prevalence data (Established). [Epidemiological]. General
Individual positive RCTs (Various). [Individual RCTs]. General
50 studies — Saw Palmetto
Ablon G – Journal of cosmetic dermatology (2026). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41652806/
Bevilacqua et al — Prostate (2026). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/pros.70071
Ablon — J Cosmet Dermatol (2025). [RCT (double-blind)].
Milani M et al. – Journal of cosmetic dermatology (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40853071/
Zhou L et al. – Frontiers in nutrition (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41561175/
Ablon G – Journal of cosmetic dermatology (2025). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41319217/
Ahmed A et al. — Skin Appendage Disord (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40771449/
Kimura et al — Nutr Health (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1177/02601060241265389
Nestor et al. — Complement Ther Dermatol (2024). [Review].
Franco JVA et al. — World J Mens Health (2024). [Updated Cochrane review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38164033/
Lee et al — Investig Clin Urol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.4111/icu.20240191
Franco JVA et al. — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2023). [Cochrane SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37345871/
Sudeep HV et al. — Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol (2023). [Clinical trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38021422/
EFSA — Novel Food status (2022). [Regulatory assessment]. Regulatory / Foundational
Blair HA — Drugs Aging (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35237936/
Yamada et al — Nutrients (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14061190
Lok et al — Asian J Surg (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asjsur.2022.01.038
Russo GI et al. – European urology focus (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31952967/
Paulis G et al. – Archivio italiano di urologia, andrologia : organo ufficiale [di] Societa italiana di ecografia urologica e nefrologica (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34933534/
Trivisonno LF et al. – Investigative and clinical urology (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34488251/
Zhang et al — World J Urol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00345-020-03577-2
Evron et al. — Skin Appendage Disord (2020). [Systematic review].
Cai T et al. – American journal of men's health (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32274957/
Evron E et al. — Skin Appendage Disord (2020). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33313047/
Sudeep et al — BMC Urol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12894-020-00648-9
Ye et al. — Medicine (2019). [Meta-analysis (27 RCTs)]. General
Kwon Y - Integrative Medicine Research (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30662839/
Das et al — Clin Nutr ESPEN (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnesp.2019.07.015
Cannarella et al — Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_201904_17595
Macchione et al — Antiinflamm Antiallergy Agents Med Chem (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871523018666181128164252
Chiancone et al — Urol Int (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000502765
Gravas et al — World J Urol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00345-018-2409-1
Ye et al — Urology (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2019.02.030
Ibishev et al — Urologiia (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31184016/
Zong et al — Zhonghua Nan Ke Xue (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32223093/
Vela-Navarrete et al. — Eur Urol (2018). [Review]. General
Vela-Navarrete R et al. - European Urology (2018). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29751088/
Vela-Navarrete R et al. – BJU international (2018). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29694707/
Morgia et al — BJU Int (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/bju.14209
Zhu et al — Zhonghua Nan Ke Xue (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30173449/
Rossi et al — J Dermatolog Treat (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546634.2017.1341610
Novara G et al. - BJU International (2016). [Systematic Review]. Prostate Health
Tacklind et al. — Cochrane Review (2012). [Cochrane SR (32 RCTs)]. General
Tacklind J et al. - Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2012). [Cochrane Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23235581/
Rossi et al. — Nat Prod Res (2012). [Mechanistic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21854111/
Barry MJ et al. - JAMA (CAMUS) (2011). [Landmark RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21954478/
Tacklind J et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2009). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19370565/
Wilt T et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2000). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10796790/
BPH prevalence data (Established). [Epidemiological]. General
Individual positive RCTs (Various). [Individual RCTs]. General
The Benefits of Seaweed
Seaweed
Natural Iodine
Seaweed is a natural, whole-food source of iodine, an essential trace mineral critical for thyroid function. Kelp and other seaweed varieties provide iodine in a bioavailable form alongside naturally occurring minerals and antioxidants. Iodine is essential for the production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy, and growth.
Key Highlights
- Natural, whole-food source of iodine
- Supports normal thyroid function (EFSA approved via iodine)
- Iodine contributes to normal energy metabolism and cognitive function (EFSA approved)
- Contains trace minerals, antioxidants, and unique marine compounds
- Sustainable and environmentally friendly ingredient
- Important for thyroid health, especially during pregnancy
Biochemistry Timeline
Iodine from seaweed is well-absorbed. Thyroid function improvements may take 4-8 weeks of consistent adequate iodine intake. Note: iodine content in seaweed can vary significantly between products, so standardised supplements provide more predictable dosing.
Summary
Seaweed is a natural, sustainable source of iodine and trace minerals. It supports thyroid function, energy metabolism, and cognitive health through its iodine content. As a whole-food ingredient, it provides nutrients in a naturally balanced form.
FAQs
Can I have too much iodine from seaweed?
Yes, some seaweed varieties (particularly kelp) can be very high in iodine. Excessive iodine can actually impair thyroid function. Look for products with standardised iodine content and stay within recommended intake levels (150 µg/day for adults; EFSA upper limit 600 µg/day).
Research
Reski S, Mahata ME, Rizal Y et al. (2026). Alginate oligosaccharides derived from tropical brown seaweeds as sustainable alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters in poultry nutrition: Functional mechanisms and production perspectives. Vet World [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41822569/
Wasson DE, Almeida C, Cueva SF et al. (2026). Effects of the macroalga Laurencia snackeyi on enteric methane emission and lactational performance in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41723001/
Cheng YC, Garavito-Duarte YR, Suarez MG et al. (2026). Effects of Dietary Marine Sulfated Polysaccharides Derived From Macroalgae on Intestinal Health of Nursery Pigs. Anim Sci J. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41692406/
Chang YC, Liu HW, Hsieh TJ et al. (2026). The effects of Oligo-Fucoidan on muscle function in community-dwelling older adults: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41124892/
Shibasaki M, Kodama H, Matsuda Y et al. (2025). Effect of Foods, Including Rice, Miso Soup, and Japanese Tea, on the Absorption of Zinc. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41485970/
Sun X, Li P, Chen B et al. (2025). Fucoidan Therapy for Extraintestinal Diseases: Targeting the Microbiota-Gut-Organ Axes. Biomolecules [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41463403/
Rattanapitoon NK, Padchasuwan NH, Arunsan P et al. (2025). Commentary: Dietary supplementation with fermented rapeseed and seaweed modulates parasite infections and gut microbiota in outdoor pigs. Front Vet Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41394916/
Domel JR, Sobotik EB, House GM et al. (2025). Comparison of Impacts of Essential Oils, Green Tea Powder, Betaine, Probiotics, and Other Dietary Supplements on Growth and Well-Being of Heat-Stressed White Pekin Ducks. Animals (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41375441/
Ward K, Cole MH, Griffiths LR et al. (2025). Therapeutic Potentials of the Seaweed-Derived Compounds for Alzheimer's Disease. Molecules [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41302511/
Enríquez J, Quezada C, Molina J et al. (2025). Study Protocol and Baseline Cardiometabolic Characterization of the RIO-Study (Response to an Intervention with Omega-3): A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Crossover Trial on Lipid and Inflammatory Profiles in Overweight and Obese Adults with Hypertriglyceridemia in Valdivia, Chile. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41228467/
Hervet C, Bussy F, Morvan A et al. (2025). Algae extract supplementation boosts humoral immunity induced by attenuated PRRSV-1 vaccination. BMC Vet Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41204351/
Lu J, Petri RM, Foster J et al. (2025). Targeted ileal microbiome modulation by in ovo seaweed polyphenols (Fucus spiralis) as an alternative to in-feed antibiotics in broiler chickens. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41151447/
Ahmad I, Rawnsley RP, Bowman JP et al. (2025). Graduate Student Literature Review: Limitations in feeding red seaweed Asparagopsis species for enteric methane mitigation in ruminants. J Dairy Sci [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41076247/
Chai HJ, Yi TK, Kao YF et al. (2025). Dual-Action Grouper Bone and Wakame Hydrolysates Supplement Enhances Exercise Performance and Modulates Gut Microbiota in Mice. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41010459/
Abdelqader A, Mahasneh ZMH, Van Hoeck V et al. (2025). Exogenous enzymes unlock prebiotic potential of Ulva lactuca: Boosting gut health and growth performance in broilers. Poult Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40961780/
Dong J, Ma H, Liu K et al. (2025). Effects of Undaria pinnatifida-derived brown algae polysaccharide (UPS) on the nutritional composition, digestive capacity, immune performance and intestinal microbiota of juvenile sea cucumber (Apostichopus japonicus). PeerJ. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40860657/
Naseer S, Asad F, Nadeem A et al. (2025). Evaluation of Sargassum ilicifolium as a functional feed additive to improve growth, haematology and disease resistance in Catla catla. J Fish Biol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40814941/
Ponnampalam EN, Jairath G, Alves SP et al. (2025). Sustainable livestock production by utilising forages, supplements, and agricultural by-products: Enhancing productivity, muscle gain, and meat quality - A review. Meat Sci [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40759624/
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20 studies — Seaweed
Reski S, Mahata ME, Rizal Y et al. (2026). Alginate oligosaccharides derived from tropical brown seaweeds as sustainable alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters in poultry nutrition: Functional mechanisms and production perspectives. Vet World [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41822569/
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The Benefits of Selenium
Selenium
Natural form
Selenium is an essential trace mineral with powerful antioxidant properties. It plays a vital role in thyroid health, immune function, and protecting cells from oxidative damage. The thyroid gland contains more selenium per gram of tissue than any other organ in the body, reflecting how important this mineral is for hormonal balance.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to normal thyroid function (EFSA approved)
- Supports the protection of cells from oxidative stress (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal function of the immune system (EFSA approved)
- Supports maintenance of normal hair and nails (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal spermatogenesis (EFSA approved)
- Thyroid gland contains more selenium per gram than any other organ
Biochemistry Timeline
Selenium supplementation can begin to influence selenoprotein activity within 2 to 4 weeks. For thyroid-related benefits, research suggests consistent supplementation for at least 3 months to see meaningful changes in thyroid antibody levels.
Selenium has a relatively narrow optimal range. The EFSA upper limit is 255 µg per day, and most supplements provide 55-200 µg per day. Blood selenium levels can be measured to assess status and guide appropriate supplementation.
Hair and Nail Health
Selenium contributes to the maintenance of normal hair and nails, an EFSA-approved health claim. Hair follicles and nail beds require adequate selenium for healthy growth, and deficiency has been associated with hair thinning and brittle nails.
Because thyroid health also directly affects hair and nail quality, selenium's dual role in supporting thyroid function and providing antioxidant protection makes it particularly valuable for those experiencing hair or nail concerns, especially when thyroid function may be a contributing factor.
Reproductive Health
Selenium plays a role in reproductive health for both women and men. EFSA recognises that selenium contributes to normal spermatogenesis (sperm production). For women, selenium's role in thyroid health is particularly relevant, as thyroid function is closely linked to menstrual regularity and fertility.
Adequate selenium status supports the hormonal balance and antioxidant protection that are important throughout the reproductive years and during pregnancy. If you are planning a pregnancy, ensuring adequate selenium intake, alongside other key nutrients, is a thoughtful step in preparation.
Summary
Selenium is an essential trace mineral that supports thyroid health, immune function, antioxidant protection, and the maintenance of healthy hair and nails. The thyroid gland relies heavily on selenium for hormone conversion, making it especially relevant for the many women affected by autoimmune thyroid conditions.
Found in foods like Brazil nuts, fish, and eggs, selenium intake can vary depending on regional soil levels. Supplementation at appropriate doses (typically 55-200 µg/day) offers a reliable way to maintain adequate selenium status, with benefits for thyroid antibody levels typically seen within 3 months of consistent use.
FAQs
How much selenium do I need?
The recommended intake for adults is 55-70 µg per day. The European upper limit is 255 µg per day. Supplementation typically provides 55-200 µg per day, depending on your dietary intake and health goals.
Can I get enough selenium from Brazil nuts alone?
Brazil nuts are the richest natural source of selenium, with just 1-2 nuts potentially providing your daily needs. However, selenium content varies significantly between nuts depending on the soil where they were grown, so relying solely on Brazil nuts can result in inconsistent intake.
Is selenium helpful for thyroid conditions?
Research supports selenium supplementation for autoimmune thyroid conditions, particularly Hashimoto's thyroiditis, where it has been shown to reduce thyroid antibodies. If you have a thyroid condition, discuss selenium supplementation with your healthcare provider as part of your overall management plan.
Are there risks of taking too much selenium?
Yes, selenium has a relatively narrow range between adequacy and excess. Symptoms of excess selenium (selenosis) can include garlic breath, hair loss, and nail changes. Staying within recommended supplementation levels and the EFSA upper limit of 255 µg/day is important.
Is selenium safe during pregnancy?
Selenium is considered safe during pregnancy at recommended doses. Adequate selenium supports thyroid function and antioxidant protection for both mother and baby. Consult your healthcare provider for personalised guidance.
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The Benefits of Streptococcus thermophilus
Streptococcus thermophilus
Probiotic strain
Streptococcus thermophilus is a probiotic lactic acid bacterium widely used in the food industry, especially for making yogurt and cheese. It is used for its ability to ferment lactose and its potential health benefits for the gut.
Key Highlights
- A key bacterial strain used in yoghurt production for centuries
- Produces lactase to support lactose digestion
- Enhances the growth of other beneficial bacteria
- Generally recognised as safe with a long history of food use
Biochemistry Timeline
Streptococcus thermophilus begins working in the upper digestive tract, producing the enzyme lactase that helps break down lactose. It also produces exopolysaccharides that may benefit gut barrier function. As a transient species, it does not permanently colonise the gut but provides benefits during its passage through the digestive system.
Summary
Streptococcus thermophilus has been consumed safely by humans for thousands of years as a key bacterium in yoghurt and cheese production. In supplement form, it supports lactose digestion and complements other probiotic strains by creating a favourable environment for their growth.
FAQs
Is Streptococcus thermophilus safe?
Absolutely. It has GRAS (Generally Recognised as Safe) status and has been consumed safely in fermented dairy products for thousands of years. It is one of the most well-established food-grade bacteria.
Does it colonise the gut permanently?
S. thermophilus is generally a transient species, meaning it provides benefits during its passage through the digestive tract rather than permanently colonising. This is why consistent daily intake is recommended.
Research
Su R et al. — Gut (2025). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40122597/
Nachum Z et al. — Nutrients (2025). [Clinical trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39940318/
Ben Othman R et al. — Endocrinol Diabetes Metab (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36606510/
Alemu BK et al. — Am J Obstet Gynecol MFM (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37660760/
Li Q et al. — Gastroenterology (2021). [Preclinical + clinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32920015/
Skrzydło-Radomańska B et al. — Nutrients (2021). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33652763/
Martinović A et al. — Nutrients (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32708008/
van den Akker CHP et al. — J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr (2020). [Position paper]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32332478/
Kok CR & Hutkins R — Nutr Rev (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30452699/
Lactose digestion — established (Established). [Established science].
Synergistic activity — established (Established). [Microbiological].
11 studies — Streptococcus thermophilus
Su R et al. — Gut (2025). [Preclinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40122597/
Nachum Z et al. — Nutrients (2025). [Clinical trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39940318/
Ben Othman R et al. — Endocrinol Diabetes Metab (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36606510/
Alemu BK et al. — Am J Obstet Gynecol MFM (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37660760/
Li Q et al. — Gastroenterology (2021). [Preclinical + clinical]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32920015/
Skrzydło-Radomańska B et al. — Nutrients (2021). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33652763/
Martinović A et al. — Nutrients (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32708008/
van den Akker CHP et al. — J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr (2020). [Position paper]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32332478/
Kok CR & Hutkins R — Nutr Rev (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30452699/
Lactose digestion — established (Established). [Established science].
Synergistic activity — established (Established). [Microbiological].
The Benefits of Turmeric
Turmeric
Botanical Extract
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is a golden-yellow spice that has been used in traditional medicine for centuries. Its primary active compound, curcumin, has potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. One of the key challenges with curcumin is its naturally low bioavailability, which is why modern formulations use enhanced delivery systems to ensure meaningful absorption.
Key Highlights
- Potent anti-inflammatory properties (NF-κB pathway modulation)
- Antioxidant that neutralises free radicals and boosts endogenous antioxidant enzymes
- High evidence for improvements in fasting glucose, CRP, and HDL (2025 umbrella review)
- Low natural bioavailability; enhanced delivery systems essential
- Piperine (black pepper extract) increases absorption up to 2,000%
- Traditional use spanning thousands of years in Ayurvedic medicine
Biochemistry Timeline
Curcumin supplementation may begin to show anti-inflammatory effects within 4 to 8 weeks. For joint comfort, 8 to 12 weeks of consistent use is typically recommended. Metabolic benefits (blood glucose, cholesterol markers) may take 8 to 12 weeks to become measurable.
Bioavailability is the critical factor with curcumin. Standard turmeric powder provides very little absorbable curcumin. Look for formulations that include piperine, liposomal delivery, or other bioavailability-enhancing technologies. Taking curcumin with a meal containing fat also improves absorption.
Mood Support
Emerging research suggests that curcumin may have mood-supporting properties. Its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects are relevant because chronic low-grade inflammation has been increasingly linked to mood disturbances.
Several studies have explored curcumin's effects on mood, with some showing promising results in supporting emotional well-being. However, the evidence is not yet strong enough to make definitive claims, and curcumin should not be considered a replacement for professional mental health support when needed.
Digestive Comfort
Turmeric has a long traditional history of use for digestive comfort. Curcumin may support healthy digestion by promoting bile production and reducing inflammation in the digestive tract.
For those who experience occasional digestive discomfort, turmeric supplementation may offer gentle support. However, in some sensitive individuals, higher doses of curcumin can cause mild stomach upset, so starting with a lower dose and increasing gradually is a sensible approach.
Summary
Turmeric's active compound curcumin offers anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and metabolic health benefits. The strongest evidence supports improvements in inflammatory markers, blood glucose, and cholesterol with bioavailability-enhanced formulations at 500-2,000 mg/day.
We value transparency: while curcumin shows real promise, some studies have found inconsistent results, and bioavailability is a critical factor. Choose enhanced formulations, take with food and fat, and allow 4 to 12 weeks for benefits to develop. Curcumin works best as part of a holistic approach to health, not as a standalone solution.
FAQs
Is eating turmeric in food enough?
Culinary use of turmeric provides flavour and small amounts of curcumin, but the doses are much lower than those studied for health benefits. Supplementation with bioavailability-enhanced curcumin provides therapeutic levels that food alone cannot easily achieve.
Why is bioavailability so important for curcumin?
Standard curcumin is poorly absorbed (less than 1% reaches the bloodstream). Without enhancement, most of it passes through the digestive system unused. Piperine, liposomal delivery, or nano-formulations can increase absorption dramatically.
Can I take turmeric with medications?
Curcumin may interact with blood-thinning medications, diabetes medications, and some stomach acid reducers. If you take any regular medication, consult your healthcare provider before starting curcumin supplementation.
Are there any side effects?
At recommended doses, curcumin is generally well-tolerated. Some people experience mild digestive discomfort, particularly at higher doses. Starting with a lower dose and taking with food can help.
Is turmeric safe during pregnancy?
Culinary amounts of turmeric are generally considered safe during pregnancy. However, high-dose curcumin supplements have not been extensively studied in pregnant women. Consult your healthcare provider before taking curcumin supplements during pregnancy.
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The Benefits of Vegan Collagen Blend
Vegan Collagen Blend
Natural Blend
Our Vegan Collagen Blend provides the key amino acids and nutrients the body needs to support its own collagen production, without using animal-derived collagen. It includes vitamin C (essential for collagen synthesis), along with plant-based amino acids and supporting nutrients that provide the building blocks for the body's natural collagen formation.
Key Highlights
- Plant-based alternative to animal-derived collagen
- Provides building blocks for the body's own collagen production
- Vitamin C supports normal collagen formation (EFSA approved)
- Includes zinc for normal protein synthesis (EFSA approved)
- Suitable for vegan and vegetarian lifestyles
- Supports skin, connective tissue, and structural health
Biochemistry Timeline
Supporting the body's own collagen production takes time. Expect 8-12 weeks of consistent use before noticing improvements in skin hydration and texture. Results depend on overall nutrition, age, and individual factors.
Summary
Our Vegan Collagen Blend takes a different approach: rather than providing pre-formed animal collagen, it supplies the amino acids, vitamin C, zinc, and other nutrients the body needs to produce its own collagen. It is an honest, plant-based option for supporting skin, connective tissue, and structural health.
FAQs
Is vegan collagen as effective as marine collagen?
They work differently. Marine collagen provides pre-formed collagen peptides. Vegan blends provide the building blocks for your own collagen production. Both approaches support skin health, though they do so through different mechanisms. Marine collagen has more direct clinical evidence for skin hydration.
Research
Ortiz-Hernández GD, Claudio-Rizo JA, González-Morales S et al. (2026). Sustainable collagen-xanthan gum hydrogel scaffolds with super-swelling behavior and biostimulatory activity for agricultural applications. Int J Biol Macromol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41865925/
Abdel-Sattar OE, El-Shiekh RA, Sabry MM et al. (2026). Zeinoside B, a pregnane glycoside from Caralluma adenensis (Defler) A. Berger, accelerates excisional wound healing in mice through antioxidant and reparative mechanisms. J Ethnopharmacol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41831744/
Chaithep T, Muangsanguan A, Castagnini JM et al. (2026). Protective Effects of Schinus terebinthifolius Leaf Supercritical Fluid Extract Against UVC-Induced Oxidative Stress: A Com-Prehensive Gene Expression Study. Int J Mol Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41828320/
Barlian A, Rahmah Y, Cho Y et al. (2026). Isolation of plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PDENs) from Aloe vera and their effect on RAW 264.7 and 1BR3 cells as a potential anti-inflammatory and anti-photoaging agent. Future Sci OA. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41817241/
Zhou Y, Valacchi G, Zhang Y et al. (2026). Recombinant collagen in the era of cellular agriculture. Trends Biotechnol [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41807151/
Manurung RD, Ginting S, Wibowo S et al. (2026). Gynura procumbens Modulates VEGF Expression in Diabetic Wounds: Evidence from Immunohistochemistry and in silico Analysis. Pak J Biol Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41804242/
Huang PP, Chih PL, OuYang SY (2026). Preliminary Insights From a Split-Face Study on Skin Quality Changes After Needling Radiofrequency With or Without a Plant-Derived Exosome-Based Formulation Over 6 Months. Aesthet Surg J. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41800727/
Kim HN, Park M, Won K et al. (2026). Anthocyanin-Containing Rose Petal Extract for Photoaging Improvement: A 12-Week Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial. J Med Food. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41788052/
Li W, Li X, Liu J et al. (2026). Protective effects of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) seed extract against acute and chronic UV-induced skin damage, implicating PLD-associated lipid signaling. J Photochem Photobiol B. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41759312/
Zhu B, Zhang S, Ji C (2026). Codonopsis pilosula extract protects against osteoporosis by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation. J Mol Histol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41758402/
Cardona AIM, Escobedo-Gonzalez RG, Vazquez-Flores AA et al. (2026). Collagen-Inducing Compounds from Chihuahuan Desert Plants for Potential Skin Bioink 3D Printing Applications: A Narrative Review. J Funct Biomater [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41745536/
Usme-Duque LK, Medina-Morales MA, León-Campos MI et al. (2026). Fermented Plant Extract-Loaded Collagen Scaffolds: Bioactive Hydrogels for Enhanced Wound Repair and Immune Modulation. Gels. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41745001/
Ren DQ, Peng HZ, Zhang Y et al. (2026). Poly(γ-glutamic acid)-thickened PLLA microspheres with enhanced biocompatibility and efficacy in aged mice. J Mater Chem B. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41736652/
Júnior DTS, Venâncio MA, Gusmão LJ et al. (2026). Ethnopharmacological evidence for the wound-healing activity of Vanillosmopsis erythropappa Schultz-bip leaf extract ointments. J Ethnopharmacol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41724287/
Ahmed RF, Rasheed DM, Mowaad NA et al. (2026). Synergistic wound healing mechanisms of Heliotropium curassavicum extracts via redox modulation, inflammation suppression, and tissue remodeling: linking phytochemical diversity to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Inflammopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41697548/
Sánchez-Cañadillas E, Morquecho Izquier A, Smith C et al. (2026). Isotopic evidence for human adaptation to island environments in the Canary Islands during the Amazigh period. Sci Rep. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41688651/
Rodríguez L, Montecino-Garrido HL, Lagos F et al. (2026). Enhanced Antiplatelet Activity of Nitrated Fatty Acid Extracts from Phaseolus vulgaris L. Molecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41683465/
Chonsut P, Tawanwongsri W, Naphatthalung J et al. (2026). Evaluation of liposome-encapsulated Centella asiatica ethanolic extract for enhanced in vitro and in vivo wound healing. Front Med Technol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41657731/
Kazemzadeh S, Raeeszadeh M, Akradi L (2026). Comparative effects of Pistacia atlantica leaf and phenytoin ointment on rat skin wound healing: histopathological changes and bioactive compounds. Inflammopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41656468/
Da Silva KKN, Câmara GLG, Gomes Júnior SV et al. (2025). Experimental evaluation of the healing potential of Sesuvium portulacastrum in excisional wounds in wistar rats. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41783040/
Nulty CD et al. — Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab (2024). [RCT (dose-response)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39259166/
Lis DM et al. — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34808597/
Boo YC — Antioxidants (Basel) (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36139737/
Lis DM & Baar K — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30859848/
DePhillipo NN et al. — Orthop J Sports Med (2018). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30386805/
EFSA — Health Claims Register (2012). [Regulatory].
26 studies — Vegan Collagen Blend
Ortiz-Hernández GD, Claudio-Rizo JA, González-Morales S et al. (2026). Sustainable collagen-xanthan gum hydrogel scaffolds with super-swelling behavior and biostimulatory activity for agricultural applications. Int J Biol Macromol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41865925/
Abdel-Sattar OE, El-Shiekh RA, Sabry MM et al. (2026). Zeinoside B, a pregnane glycoside from Caralluma adenensis (Defler) A. Berger, accelerates excisional wound healing in mice through antioxidant and reparative mechanisms. J Ethnopharmacol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41831744/
Chaithep T, Muangsanguan A, Castagnini JM et al. (2026). Protective Effects of Schinus terebinthifolius Leaf Supercritical Fluid Extract Against UVC-Induced Oxidative Stress: A Com-Prehensive Gene Expression Study. Int J Mol Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41828320/
Barlian A, Rahmah Y, Cho Y et al. (2026). Isolation of plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PDENs) from Aloe vera and their effect on RAW 264.7 and 1BR3 cells as a potential anti-inflammatory and anti-photoaging agent. Future Sci OA. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41817241/
Zhou Y, Valacchi G, Zhang Y et al. (2026). Recombinant collagen in the era of cellular agriculture. Trends Biotechnol [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41807151/
Manurung RD, Ginting S, Wibowo S et al. (2026). Gynura procumbens Modulates VEGF Expression in Diabetic Wounds: Evidence from Immunohistochemistry and in silico Analysis. Pak J Biol Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41804242/
Huang PP, Chih PL, OuYang SY (2026). Preliminary Insights From a Split-Face Study on Skin Quality Changes After Needling Radiofrequency With or Without a Plant-Derived Exosome-Based Formulation Over 6 Months. Aesthet Surg J. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41800727/
Kim HN, Park M, Won K et al. (2026). Anthocyanin-Containing Rose Petal Extract for Photoaging Improvement: A 12-Week Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial. J Med Food. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41788052/
Li W, Li X, Liu J et al. (2026). Protective effects of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) seed extract against acute and chronic UV-induced skin damage, implicating PLD-associated lipid signaling. J Photochem Photobiol B. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41759312/
Zhu B, Zhang S, Ji C (2026). Codonopsis pilosula extract protects against osteoporosis by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation. J Mol Histol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41758402/
Cardona AIM, Escobedo-Gonzalez RG, Vazquez-Flores AA et al. (2026). Collagen-Inducing Compounds from Chihuahuan Desert Plants for Potential Skin Bioink 3D Printing Applications: A Narrative Review. J Funct Biomater [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41745536/
Usme-Duque LK, Medina-Morales MA, León-Campos MI et al. (2026). Fermented Plant Extract-Loaded Collagen Scaffolds: Bioactive Hydrogels for Enhanced Wound Repair and Immune Modulation. Gels. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41745001/
Ren DQ, Peng HZ, Zhang Y et al. (2026). Poly(γ-glutamic acid)-thickened PLLA microspheres with enhanced biocompatibility and efficacy in aged mice. J Mater Chem B. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41736652/
Júnior DTS, Venâncio MA, Gusmão LJ et al. (2026). Ethnopharmacological evidence for the wound-healing activity of Vanillosmopsis erythropappa Schultz-bip leaf extract ointments. J Ethnopharmacol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41724287/
Ahmed RF, Rasheed DM, Mowaad NA et al. (2026). Synergistic wound healing mechanisms of Heliotropium curassavicum extracts via redox modulation, inflammation suppression, and tissue remodeling: linking phytochemical diversity to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Inflammopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41697548/
Sánchez-Cañadillas E, Morquecho Izquier A, Smith C et al. (2026). Isotopic evidence for human adaptation to island environments in the Canary Islands during the Amazigh period. Sci Rep. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41688651/
Rodríguez L, Montecino-Garrido HL, Lagos F et al. (2026). Enhanced Antiplatelet Activity of Nitrated Fatty Acid Extracts from Phaseolus vulgaris L. Molecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41683465/
Chonsut P, Tawanwongsri W, Naphatthalung J et al. (2026). Evaluation of liposome-encapsulated Centella asiatica ethanolic extract for enhanced in vitro and in vivo wound healing. Front Med Technol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41657731/
Kazemzadeh S, Raeeszadeh M, Akradi L (2026). Comparative effects of Pistacia atlantica leaf and phenytoin ointment on rat skin wound healing: histopathological changes and bioactive compounds. Inflammopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41656468/
Da Silva KKN, Câmara GLG, Gomes Júnior SV et al. (2025). Experimental evaluation of the healing potential of Sesuvium portulacastrum in excisional wounds in wistar rats. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41783040/
Nulty CD et al. — Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab (2024). [RCT (dose-response)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39259166/
Lis DM et al. — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34808597/
Boo YC — Antioxidants (Basel) (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36139737/
Lis DM & Baar K — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2019). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30859848/
DePhillipo NN et al. — Orthop J Sports Med (2018). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30386805/
EFSA — Health Claims Register (2012). [Regulatory].
The Benefits of Vitamin A (cod liver oil)
Vitamin A (cod liver oil)
Vitamin A from Cod Liver Oil provides naturally occurring retinol, the most bioactive form of vitamin A. It supports vision, immune function, skin health, and cell differentiation. As a naturally occurring component of cod liver oil, it is delivered alongside omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin D for comprehensive nutritional support.
Key Highlights
- Naturally occurring retinol (preformed vitamin A)
- Supports normal vision, immune function, and skin health (EFSA approved)
- Delivered alongside omega-3 and vitamin D in cod liver oil
- See our Vitamin A page for detailed research and information
Biochemistry Timeline
As a fat-soluble vitamin delivered in an oil-based matrix, vitamin A from cod liver oil is well-absorbed. See our Vitamin A ingredient page for detailed information on biochemistry and timelines.
Summary
Vitamin A from cod liver oil provides naturally occurring retinol alongside omega-3 and vitamin D. See our main Vitamin A page for detailed research, EFSA claims, and comprehensive information.
FAQs
How is vitamin A from cod liver oil different from plant-based vitamin A?
Cod liver oil provides preformed vitamin A (retinol), which your body can use immediately. Plant sources provide beta-carotene, which must be converted to retinol, a process that varies in efficiency between individuals.
Can I take too much vitamin A from cod liver oil?
Yes, preformed vitamin A is fat-soluble and can accumulate in the body. It is important to stay within recommended intake levels, especially during pregnancy where excess vitamin A can be harmful.
Is cod liver oil sustainable?
Reputable cod liver oil producers source from sustainably managed fisheries. Look for certifications such as Friend of the Sea or MSC to ensure responsible sourcing.
Research
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Benna-Doyle et al — Integr Cancer Ther (2026). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1177/15347354251405267
Kaur et al — Antiviral Res (2026). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2026.106361
NIH ODS — Vitamin A Health Professional Fact Sheet (2025). [Regulatory / Reference]. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminA-HealthProfessional/
Azhar M et al. – Neonatology (2025). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39591949/
King et al — J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdv.20315
He et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16639
Kakpovbia et al — J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdv.20154
Cowan et al — Australas J Dermatol (2025). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajd.14424
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104 studies — Vitamin A (cod liver oil)
Sianipar EA et al. – Drug design, development and therapy (2026). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41710586/
Benna-Doyle et al — Integr Cancer Ther (2026). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1177/15347354251405267
Kaur et al — Antiviral Res (2026). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2026.106361
NIH ODS — Vitamin A Health Professional Fact Sheet (2025). [Regulatory / Reference]. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminA-HealthProfessional/
Azhar M et al. – Neonatology (2025). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39591949/
King et al — J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdv.20315
He et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16639
Kakpovbia et al — J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdv.20154
Cowan et al — Australas J Dermatol (2025). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajd.14424
Lee et al — Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila) (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apjo.2025.100143
Li et al — Front Immunol (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2025.1689498
Han et al — Infection (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s15010-024-02357-z
Liang et al — Front Oncol (2025). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2025.1564575
Santo ACSDE et al. – Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angeles County, Calif.) (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38696907/
Lau M et al. – Archives of dermatological research (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38758222/
Chaudhary V et al. – Biological trace element research (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38109004/
Reynolds et al — J Am Acad Dermatol (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2023.12.017
Yuan et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD014918.pub2
Hazarika et al — Int J Dermatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijd.17129
Avraham et al — J Dtsch Dermatol Ges (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddg.15290
Cheng et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD015306.pub2
Batais et al — BMJ Open Ophthalmol (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjophth-2024-001910
Zhou et al — J Cutan Med Surg (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1177/12034754241266187
Milani et al — Allergy (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.15997
Cuestas et al — Arch Dermatol Res (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-024-03016-x
Tao et al — Skin Res Technol (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/srt.13903
SeyedAlinaghi et al — J Health Popul Nutr (2024). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-024-00504-8
Kurokawa I et al. – Dermatology and therapy (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37338719/
Draelos et al — J Drugs Dermatol (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.36849/JDD.7142
Huang et al — Ann Fam Med (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.2995
Zhang et al — J Am Acad Dermatol (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2023.07.1023
Falkowska et al — Nutrients (2023). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15214585
Jung et al — Ocul Surf (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtos.2023.04.015
Li et al — Front Vet Sci (2023). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1105754
Nankumbi et al — Adv Nutr (2023). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advnut.2023.08.009
Imdad A et al. - Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2022). [Cochrane Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35266555/
Vlieg-Boerstra B et al. – Allergy (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34626488/
Miller LJ et al. – Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland) (2022). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36067585/
Imdad A et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35294044/
Mavranezouli et al — Br J Dermatol (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.21739
Kapała et al — Int J Environ Res Public Health (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116463
Puyana et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.15420
Al Muqarrab et al — Dermatol Ther (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/dth.15311
Stein Gold et al — Am J Clin Dermatol (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40257-021-00650-3
Liu et al — Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3760/cma.j.cn112137-20220321-00595
Rajendran et al — Exp Eye Res (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2022.109194
Wu et al — Blood (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.2021013393
Podell et al — Clin Infect Dis (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciac326
Sadeghzadeh-Bazargan et al — Dermatol Ther (2021). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/dth.14438
Diogo et al — Sensors (Basel) (2021). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21206943
Chu et al — Arch Dermatol Res (2021). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-020-02152-4
Bell et al — Ann Pharmacother (2021). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1177/1060028020934892
Golebski et al — Immunity (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2020.12.013
Yu et al — Clin Cancer Res (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-20-3909
Stuart et al — Br J Dermatol (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.20080
Szymański Ł et al. – Cells (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33322246/
Tan et al — Am J Clin Dermatol (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40257-019-00485-z
Abdelmaksoud et al — Dermatol Ther (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/dth.13251
Sun et al — Retina (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/IAE.0000000000002543
Sahile et al — Biomed Res Int (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8032894
Xu et al — Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3760/cma.j.cn112137-20200728-02232
Ahmad et al — J Nutr (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxz193
Bastos Maia et al. — Nutrients (2019). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31405217/
Church JA et al. – The Lancet. Infectious diseases (2019). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30712836/
Zinder R et al. – Nutrition in clinical practice : official publication of the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31697447/
Bohn T et al. – The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30747092/
Kolli et al — Am J Clin Dermatol (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40257-019-00423-z
Huang et al. — J Am Acad Dermatol (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29217280/
Huang Z et al. - Nutrients (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30400586/
Yakoob MY et al. – Journal of epidemiology and global health (2018). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30859783/
Vallerand et al — Br J Dermatol (2018). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.15668
Costa et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2018). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009435.pub2
Federspiel et al — Ophthalmic Genet (2018). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1080/13816810.2018.1488174
Ladenstein et al — Lancet Oncol (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(18)30578-3
Imdad et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2017). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008524.pub3
Bello S et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2016). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27580345/
McCauley et al. — Cochrane Review (2015). [Cochrane systematic review].
EFSA NDA Panel — EFSA Journal (2015). [Regulatory / Scientific Opinion]. Regulatory / Foundational
EFSA Panel - EFSA Journal (2015). [Scientific Opinion]. Safety
Aufartova et al — Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.5507/bp.2015.028
Jans et al — Adv Nutr (2015). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.114.008086
McCauley et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2015). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008666.pub3
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The Benefits of Vitamin A
Vitamin A
Active form
Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin essential for vision, immune function, skin health, and cell differentiation. It exists in two forms: preformed vitamin A (retinol, found in animal products) and provitamin A (beta-carotene, found in colourful fruits and vegetables). Adequate vitamin A supports the body's natural defence systems and the maintenance of healthy skin and mucous membranes.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to the maintenance of normal vision (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal function of the immune system (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to the maintenance of normal skin (EFSA approved)
- Supports the maintenance of normal mucous membranes (EFSA approved)
- Has a role in the process of cell specialisation (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal iron metabolism (EFSA approved)
Biochemistry Timeline
Vitamin A is fat-soluble and stored in the liver, so the body maintains reserves. Correcting a deficiency typically takes 2 to 4 weeks with appropriate supplementation. Vision-related improvements (night vision) can occur relatively quickly once levels are restored.
Because vitamin A is stored in the body, there is a greater risk of excess compared to water-soluble vitamins. This is why balanced, moderate supplementation is important, and very high-dose vitamin A should only be taken under medical supervision.
Thyroid Support
Research has explored the relationship between vitamin A and thyroid function. A study by Farhangi et al. (2012, Journal of the American College of Nutrition) found that 25,000 IU of retinol daily for 4 months normalised TSH levels and increased free T3 in participants.
While this was a specific clinical intervention and not a general supplementation recommendation, it highlights vitamin A's role in supporting thyroid hormone metabolism. Ensuring adequate vitamin A intake may support normal thyroid function, particularly in combination with selenium and iodine.
Iron Metabolism
Vitamin A contributes to normal iron metabolism, an EFSA-approved health claim. It helps mobilise iron from storage and supports its incorporation into haemoglobin. This relationship means that vitamin A deficiency can worsen iron deficiency anaemia, even when iron intake is adequate.
For women of reproductive age, who are at higher risk of both vitamin A and iron insufficiency, ensuring adequate intake of both nutrients supports optimal red blood cell formation and energy levels.
Summary
Vitamin A is essential for vision, immune function, skin health, and cell differentiation. It exists as preformed retinol (from animal foods) and provitamin A beta-carotene (from colourful vegetables). EFSA recognises multiple health claims including contributions to normal vision, immune function, skin maintenance, and iron metabolism.
Balanced supplementation is key with vitamin A, as the body stores it in the liver and excess preformed retinol can be harmful. The European upper limit is 3,000 µg RAE per day. For most people, moderate supplementation alongside a varied diet provides optimal support.
FAQs
How much vitamin A do I need?
The recommended daily allowance for women aged 19+ is 700 µg RAE. The European upper limit for preformed retinol is 3,000 µg RAE per day. Beta-carotene from food has no established upper limit as the body self-regulates conversion.
Is vitamin A safe during pregnancy?
Adequate vitamin A is important during pregnancy for fetal development. However, excessive preformed retinol (above 3,000 µg RAE) during pregnancy has been associated with birth defects. Pregnant women should avoid high-dose vitamin A supplements and liver products, and follow their healthcare provider's guidance.
What is the difference between retinol and beta-carotene?
Retinol is preformed vitamin A (active, from animal sources) that the body uses directly. Beta-carotene is a provitamin (from plant sources) that the body converts to retinol as needed. Beta-carotene is safer at higher intakes because the body only converts what it needs.
Can I take too much vitamin A?
Yes, excessive intake of preformed retinol can cause liver toxicity, headaches, and other symptoms. Stay within recommended limits and avoid combining multiple supplements that contain vitamin A without checking total intake.
Are there any interactions with medications?
Vitamin A can interact with retinoid medications (used for skin conditions), some antibiotics, and blood-thinning drugs. Consult your healthcare provider if you take regular medication.
Research
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Cowan et al — Australas J Dermatol (2025). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajd.14424
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Li et al — Front Immunol (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2025.1689498
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Chaudhary V et al. – Biological trace element research (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38109004/
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Gilbert — Surv Ophthalmol (2013). [Review]. General
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West et al. — BMJ (Nepal NNIPS-2 trial) (1999). [Cluster RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10037611/
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van Dam MA – The Nurse practitioner (1989). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2671824/
104 studies — Vitamin A
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Kolli et al — Am J Clin Dermatol (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40257-019-00423-z
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EFSA Panel - EFSA Journal (2015). [Scientific Opinion]. Safety
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Gilbert — Surv Ophthalmol (2013). [Review]. General
Gilbert C - Community Eye Health (2013). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24782580/
Farhangi et al. — J Am Coll Nutr (2012). [RCT].
Rutkowski M et al. – International journal of occupational medicine and environmental health (2012). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22528540/
Hovdenak N et al. – European journal of obstetrics, gynecology, and reproductive biology (2012). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22771225/
Clagett-Dame & Knutson — Nutrients (2011). [Comprehensive review].
Clagett-Dame M & Knutson D - Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition (2011). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21711128/
Mayo-Wilson E et al. – BMJ (Clinical research ed.) (2011). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21868478/
Bello S et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2011). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21491401/
Sommer A - Journal of Nutrition (2008). [Landmark Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18203906/
Huiming Y et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2005). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16235283/
Genaro Pde S et al. – Nutrition reviews (2004). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15080368/
Brown N et al. – Acta paediatrica (Oslo, Norway : 1992) (2004). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15513568/
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D'Souza RM et al. – Journal of tropical pediatrics (2002). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12022432/
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West et al. — BMJ (Nepal NNIPS-2 trial) (1999). [Cluster RCT (double-blind)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10037611/
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The Benefits of Thiamine
Thiamine
Bioavailable Form
Thiamine (Vitamin B1) is an essential water-soluble vitamin that plays a fundamental role in energy metabolism and nervous system function. It is the first B vitamin that was discovered, and it helps convert carbohydrates into energy, making it essential for every cell in the body, particularly the brain and heart.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal heart function (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal psychological function (EFSA approved)
- First B vitamin discovered; essential for carbohydrate metabolism
- Brain and heart are particularly dependent on thiamine
Biochemistry Timeline
Thiamine is water-soluble with limited body storage. Blood levels respond to supplementation within 1 to 2 weeks. Because it is not stored efficiently, consistent daily intake is important. Thiamine is well-tolerated with no established upper limit, as excess is readily excreted.
Cognitive Function
Thiamine supports cognitive function through its essential role in brain energy metabolism. The brain's heavy reliance on glucose means that even mild thiamine insufficiency can affect mental clarity, concentration, and memory. Ensuring adequate thiamine supports sharp, clear thinking.
Digestive Health
Thiamine supports the production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach, which is necessary for proper digestion and nutrient absorption. It also supports the muscle tone of the digestive tract, helping maintain healthy bowel function.
Summary
Thiamine (Vitamin B1) is essential for energy metabolism, heart function, and nervous system health. As the body cannot store thiamine efficiently, regular daily intake supports consistent energy production and cognitive function. EFSA recognises its contributions to energy metabolism, heart function, nervous system function, and psychological function.
FAQs
How much thiamine do I need?
The recommended daily intake for adults is 1.1 mg. There is no established upper limit as excess thiamine is excreted in urine. Supplemental doses of 1-100 mg are commonly used.
Are there any side effects?
Thiamine is considered very safe. Excess is efficiently excreted in urine. Side effects are extremely rare even at high doses.
Is thiamine safe during pregnancy?
Yes, thiamine is essential during pregnancy for maternal and fetal energy metabolism. Recommended intake is slightly higher during pregnancy.
Research
Wang H, Wang Y, Li C et al. (2026). Association of thiamine supplementation with 30-day mortality among ICU patients with sepsis-associated delirium. Sci Rep. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41872438/
Sumboonnanonda R, Vijarnsorn C, Saengpanit P et al. (2026). Impact of thiamin supplementation on thiamin pyrophosphate effect and cardiac function in pediatric heart disease patients on diuretics: a randomized controlled trial. Sci Rep. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41872295/
Yin M, Jing X, He Q et al. (2026). Thiamine supplementation is associated with lower in-hospital and ICU mortality in patients with acute respiratory failure: a retrospective cohort study based on the MIMIC-IV database. BMC Pulm Med. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41862834/
Liang W, Chen Y, Zeng Y et al. (2026). A hemodialysis patient with recurrent Wernicke encephalopathy showed reversible lentiform fork sign: A case report. Medicine (Baltimore). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41861210/
Rahaman A, Blanckart L, Hanelt D et al. (2026). Unraveling filamentous algae as a renewable bioresource for advanced moisture-absorbent innovative aquatic fibers. Bioresour Bioprocess. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41843345/
Hrouch W, Naji Y, Hamza L et al. (2026). Duodenal Lymphocytosis and B1 Deficiency: Unveiling the Overlap Between Gut and Brain. Cureus. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41798567/
Fu AS, Osman F, Cameron-Smith D et al. (2026). Micronutrient intake and status of adults consuming plant-based meat analogues or animal-based meats as primary protein source: An 8-week randomized controlled trial. Clin Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41785660/
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Ma Y, Zhang J, Chen C et al. (2026). Thiamine ameliorates subacute ruminal acidosis-induced mastitis in goats and is associated with modulation of the NF-κB/NLRP3/CLOCK axis and rumen microbial homeostasis. J Dairy Sci. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41780867/
Miteva MT, Laurenti D, Mattioli R et al. (2026). Vitamin deficiencies and Alzheimer's disease: evidence and implications for supplementation. Front Nutr [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41769656/
Vine J, Lee JH, Simpson MD et al. (2026). Baseline measurements of cellular respiration affect the response to thiamine treatment in post-arrest patients. Resuscitation. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41759812/
Xue F, Zhang F, Zhuang Q et al. (2026). Metagenomic Insights into the Modulatory Effects of Thiamine Supplementation for Treating Subclinical Ketosis Dairy Cows. Animals (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41751141/
Neupane A, Shahi A, Adhikari B (2026). Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome a Rare Complication of Hyperemesis Gravidarum: Case Report. Clin Case Rep. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41727741/
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Anderson YT, Priest K, Zastre J (2026). Vitamin B1 protects against Aβ(1-42)-induced HIF-1α activation and neurotoxicity. Neurochem Int. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41707701/
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Freddy M, Larsen TB, Patel S (2026). See One, B1, Treat One: Identifying and Managing Thiamine Deficiency in a Patient With Altered Mental Status. Cureus. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41640937/
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Ijaz et al — Int J Equity Health (2017). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-017-0564-4
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Guo et al — Nutr Res (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2016.02.003
Joy et al — J Int Soc Sports Nutr (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-016-0136-9
Ellis et al — Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2015-0244
van der Zwaluw et al — Nutrients (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9010008
Oulhaj et al — J Alzheimers Dis (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-150777
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B vitamin synergy — established (Established). [Established science].
The Benefits of Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12
Methylated Form
Vitamin B12 (Methylcobalamin) is essential for energy production, nerve health, and red blood cell formation. It plays a vital role in converting food into energy and maintaining healthy neurological function. B12 is also crucial for DNA synthesis and helps prevent megaloblastic anaemia, a condition that can cause fatigue and weakness due to large, improperly formed red blood cells.
Key Highlights
- Supports normal energy-yielding metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal psychological function (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal nervous system function (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal red blood cell formation (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal homocysteine metabolism (EFSA approved)
Biochemistry Timeline
Vitamin B12 supplementation may take 4 to 8 weeks to show noticeable benefits, particularly in those with a deficiency. Improvements can include enhanced energy levels, better mood, increased cognitive clarity, and improved nerve function. B12 is stored in the liver, so building up adequate reserves takes time. For those with diagnosed deficiency, healthcare providers may recommend higher initial doses to replenish stores more quickly.
Because B12 is water-soluble, your body uses what it needs and excretes the rest, making it generally well-tolerated even at higher supplementation levels.
Mood and Psychological Function
B12 plays a supportive role in the production of serotonin, often referred to as our "feel-good" neurotransmitter, which is closely linked to mood, emotions, and sleep.
Researchers have found evidence that a decrease in vitamin B12 correlates with an increase in depressive symptoms. One study also suggests that adequate B12 status may be associated with better treatment outcomes for depression (Coppen & Bolander-Gouaille, 2005; Penninx et al., 2000; Syed et al., 2013).
EFSA recognises that vitamin B12 contributes to normal psychological function. While more research is needed to fully understand the relationship between B12 and mood, ensuring adequate intake is a sensible first step towards supporting emotional well-being.
Nerve Health and DNA Synthesis
B12 supports the normal functioning of nerve cells and plays a pivotal role in DNA synthesis. One of its most important functions is aiding in the formation of myelin, the protective sheath that surrounds nerves and facilitates efficient nerve signalling.
When B12 levels are low, myelin production can be disrupted, potentially leading to impaired nervous system function. Neurological symptoms of deficiency can include numbness, tingling, and difficulty with balance (Langan & Goodbred, 2017; O'Leary & Samman, 2010).
EFSA confirms that vitamin B12 contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system and has a role in the process of cell division, which includes DNA synthesis. Ensuring adequate B12 intake is particularly important for maintaining long-term nerve health.
Summary
Vitamin B12 (Methylcobalamin) is crucial for energy production, nerve health, and red blood cell formation. It helps convert food into energy, prevents megaloblastic anaemia, and supports DNA synthesis. Supplementation may take 4 to 8 weeks to show benefits, including improved energy, better mood, clearer thinking, and enhanced nerve function.
B12 is primarily found in animal products, making vegans and vegetarians particularly susceptible to deficiency. Symptoms of low B12 can include fatigue, weakness, and cognitive difficulties. For those at risk, supplementation offers a practical and well-supported way to maintain optimal B12 levels and overall well-being.
FAQs
Who should consider vitamin B12 supplementation?
People at higher risk of deficiency include vegetarians, vegans, older adults, and those with conditions affecting nutrient absorption (such as coeliac disease or Crohn's disease). If you fall into any of these groups, supplementation can be a practical way to maintain adequate levels.
What are the signs of vitamin B12 deficiency?
Common symptoms may include persistent fatigue, weakness, pale skin, numbness or tingling in hands and feet, difficulty with balance, and cognitive difficulties such as poor concentration or memory. If you experience these symptoms, it is worth speaking with your healthcare provider.
Are there any side effects of vitamin B12 supplementation?
Vitamin B12 is generally considered safe and well-tolerated. Because it is water-soluble, excess amounts are typically excreted by the body. In rare cases, very high doses may cause mild effects such as digestive discomfort.
Can vitamin B12 interact with medications?
B12 can interact with certain medications, including metformin (commonly used for diabetes) and proton pump inhibitors (acid-reducing drugs). If you take any regular medication, consult your healthcare provider before starting supplementation.
Is vitamin B12 safe during pregnancy?
Yes, adequate B12 is important for healthy fetal development. Pregnant and breastfeeding women should ensure sufficient intake, and supplementation may be particularly relevant for those following plant-based diets. Always consult your healthcare provider for guidance on appropriate dosage during pregnancy.
Research
B12 & cognition review — ScienceDirect (2025). [Narrative review]. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S266645932500040X
Cureus - Neurological Sequelae SR (2025). [Systematic Review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12143585/
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Ulloque-Badaracco JR et al. – Frontiers in public health (2025). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39991695/
Castillo LF et al. – Annual review of nutrition (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40315282/
Janko RK et al. – American journal of health promotion : AJHP (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39136672/
Verduci E et al. – Journal of pediatric gastroenterology and nutrition (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40819279/
Deng XL et al. – Frontiers in endocrinology (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40612436/
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103 studies — Vitamin B12
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The Benefits of Vitamin B2
Vitamin B2
Bioavailable Form
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) is an essential water-soluble vitamin that plays a key role in energy production, cellular function, and the metabolism of fats, drugs, and steroids. It acts as a precursor to the coenzymes FAD and FMN, which are involved in numerous metabolic reactions including the electron transport chain that generates cellular energy.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Supports the reduction of tiredness and fatigue (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to maintenance of normal skin and mucous membranes (EFSA approved)
- Supports maintenance of normal vision (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to protection of cells from oxidative stress (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal functioning of the nervous system (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal iron metabolism (EFSA approved)
Biochemistry Timeline
Riboflavin is water-soluble and rapidly absorbed. Blood levels respond within days of supplementation. The bright yellow urine some people notice when taking B vitamins is due to riboflavin and is completely harmless.
Iron Metabolism
Riboflavin contributes to normal iron metabolism, supporting the body's ability to absorb, transport, and utilise iron. This makes it a supportive nutrient alongside iron supplementation, particularly for women at risk of iron deficiency.
Nervous System
Riboflavin contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system. Its role in energy production is particularly important for nerve cells, which have high metabolic demands. Some research has also explored riboflavin's potential role in migraine prevention at higher doses (400 mg/day), though this is beyond standard nutritional supplementation.
Summary
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) is essential for energy production, skin health, vision, antioxidant protection, and iron metabolism. It is well-absorbed, safe, and the bright yellow urine sometimes caused by B-complex supplements is due to riboflavin and is completely harmless.
FAQs
Why does my urine turn yellow when taking B vitamins?
The bright yellow colour is caused by riboflavin (B2) and is completely normal and harmless. It simply indicates that your body is absorbing the vitamin and excreting the excess.
How much riboflavin do I need?
The recommended daily intake for adults is 1.1-1.4 mg. There is no established upper limit as excess is excreted in urine.
Is riboflavin safe during pregnancy?
Yes, riboflavin is important during pregnancy. Recommended intake is slightly higher during pregnancy and breastfeeding.
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B vitamin synergy — established (Established). [Established science].
The Benefits of Niacin
Niacin
Stable form
Niacin (Vitamin B3) is an essential water-soluble vitamin that plays a central role in energy metabolism. It is a precursor to NAD and NADP, two coenzymes involved in over 400 enzymatic reactions in the body. Niacin supports energy production, DNA repair, skin health, and nervous system function.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Supports the reduction of tiredness and fatigue (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to maintenance of normal skin and mucous membranes (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal psychological function (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system (EFSA approved)
- NAD/NADP coenzymes involved in over 400 enzymatic reactions
Biochemistry Timeline
Niacin is water-soluble and quickly absorbed. Blood levels respond within days. Note: nicotinic acid (one form of niacin) can cause a harmless "flush" (warmth, redness of skin) at higher doses. Nicotinamide does not cause this effect.
DNA Repair and Cellular Health
NAD plays a role in DNA repair through enzymes called PARPs (poly ADP-ribose polymerases) and sirtuins. These pathways are increasingly recognised as important for cellular maintenance and longevity. Adequate niacin intake supports the body's ability to repair DNA damage from normal metabolic processes and environmental exposures.
Cardiovascular Support
High-dose nicotinic acid has been used clinically to support healthy cholesterol levels. However, this is a pharmaceutical application at doses well above nutritional supplementation and should only be used under medical supervision. At nutritional doses, niacin supports overall cardiovascular health through its role in energy metabolism and cellular function.
Summary
Niacin (Vitamin B3) is a versatile vitamin whose coenzyme forms (NAD, NADP) are involved in over 400 reactions. It supports energy metabolism, skin health, nervous system function, and DNA repair. EFSA recognises multiple health claims including contributions to energy metabolism, tiredness reduction, skin maintenance, and psychological function.
FAQs
What is the "niacin flush"?
Nicotinic acid can cause a harmless temporary warmth and redness of the skin. This is called the niacin flush and is not dangerous. Nicotinamide (niacinamide) does not cause this effect.
How much niacin do I need?
The recommended daily intake for adults is 13-16 mg NE (niacin equivalents). The European upper limit for nicotinic acid is 10 mg/day; for nicotinamide it is 900 mg/day.
Is niacin safe during pregnancy?
Yes, niacin is essential during pregnancy. Recommended intake is slightly higher during pregnancy.
Research
Højfeldt G, Michaud J, Damgaard A et al. (2026). Nicotinamide and Pyridoxine Supplementation Enhances Muscle Stem Cell Activity and Muscle Regeneration in Humans: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial of High Force Eccentric Contraction Recovery in Healthy Young Men. Adv Sci (Weinh). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41874466/
Berven H, Svensen M, Eikeland H et al. (2026). The NAD-brain pharmacokinetic study of NAD augmentation in blood and brain using oral precursor supplementation. iScience. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41858901/
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Qian X, Xu L, Zheng Y et al. (2026). Senescence-associated metabolic alterations aggravate calcific aortic valve disease. Eur Heart J. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41841768/
Zhang F, Zhang H, Wang P et al. (2026). The NAD salvage pathway enzyme NMNAT-C sustains dark-phase NAD+ homeostasis in cyanobacteria. Plant Physiol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41838801/
Bai Y, Zhou Y, Wang G et al. (2026). Niacin Mitigates Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunosuppression by Maintaining Intestinal Homeostasis and Regulating the HCAR2/NLRP3 and PTGS2/PGE2 Signaling Pathways. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41829914/
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Huang J, Qin Q, Li X et al. (2026). Bacteroides-associated NAD⁺ depletion correlates with exacerbated radiation-induced colorectal injury and impaired mucosal proliferative capacity. Gut Microbes. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41807298/
Zhou H, Zhao X, Li Y et al. (2026). Nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation modulates gut microbiota and metabolites to mitigate Alzheimer's disease pathology in APP/PS1 mice. J Alzheimers Dis. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41805251/
Zhou E, Zhao H, Yu Y et al. (2026). Combined exposure of cold and hypoxia: a driver for hypertension and the underlying role of the microbiota-gut-brain axis. J Hypertens. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41800819/
Huang Y, Zhao E, Zhao G et al. (2026). H3K18 lactylation-mediated SPHK1-SIRT1 feedback loop accelerates pyroptosis of tubular epithelial cells in sepsis-associated acute kidney injury. Theranostics. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41799201/
Dong M, Zhang Q, Wang Y et al. (2026). Restructuring tilth layers suppresses cotton Verticillium wilt through the niacinamide-mediated enrichment of beneficial Pseudomonas. Microbiol Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41793890/
Saida M, Saeki N, Sakai H et al. (2026). β-Nicotinamide mononucleotide preserves muscle strength in septic male mice. Sci Rep. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41792260/
Kim JH, Park SJ, Lee JA et al. (2026). PRPS1 (p.V42L) Mutation in Arts Syndrome Induces Aberrant Neural Stem Cell Development and Neuronal Senescence-Like Phenotype: Rescue by Nicotinamide Mononucleotide Supplementation. Int J Stem Cells. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41787648/
Zhou Y, Wu X, Xu X et al. (2026). Sirt1-eIF2α axis drives pro-inflammatory macrophage activation through ER stress aggravating liver IRI in aged mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41775225/
Zhang D, Li Z, Meng X et al. (2026). Nicotinamide Mononucleotide Decreases Secretion of Proinflammatory Cytokines via the NAD (+) /SIRT1/p65 Axis. ACS Omega. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41768621/
Jin X, Luo X, Shen W et al. (2026). Nicotinamide Riboside Alleviates Heat Stress-Induced Intestinal Dysfunction by Enhancing Antioxidant Capacity, Restoring Immune Homeostasis, and Modulating Gut Microbiota in a Boar Model. Mol Nutr Food Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41761881/
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B vitamin synergy — established (Established). [Established science].
150 studies — Niacin
Højfeldt G, Michaud J, Damgaard A et al. (2026). Nicotinamide and Pyridoxine Supplementation Enhances Muscle Stem Cell Activity and Muscle Regeneration in Humans: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial of High Force Eccentric Contraction Recovery in Healthy Young Men. Adv Sci (Weinh). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41874466/
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Li Y, Bao T, Gao L et al. (2026). Aging Triggers an Intestinal Energy Crisis and HDL3 Deficiency Disrupting Gut-Liver Axis Homeostasis. Aging Cell. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41851037/
Sayles NM, Casalena G, Zhao D et al. (2026). Pregnancy precipitates metabolic imbalance and accelerates death in an animal model of mitochondrial cardiomyopathy. Mol Metab. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41850395/
Qian X, Xu L, Zheng Y et al. (2026). Senescence-associated metabolic alterations aggravate calcific aortic valve disease. Eur Heart J. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41841768/
Zhang F, Zhang H, Wang P et al. (2026). The NAD salvage pathway enzyme NMNAT-C sustains dark-phase NAD+ homeostasis in cyanobacteria. Plant Physiol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41838801/
Bai Y, Zhou Y, Wang G et al. (2026). Niacin Mitigates Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunosuppression by Maintaining Intestinal Homeostasis and Regulating the HCAR2/NLRP3 and PTGS2/PGE2 Signaling Pathways. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41829914/
Granvillano G, Mercogliano M, Vecchietti A et al. (2026). An Umbrella Review on the Prevention of Skin Diseases: Do Specific Nutrients Play a Protective Role?. Prev Nutr Food Sci [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41815197/
Carpenter BJ, Lecacheur M, Mangold YN et al. (2026). NAD(+) controls circadian rhythmicity during cardiac aging. Commun Biol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41813966/
Pei Z, Liang F, Wang X et al. (2026). NAD⁺ as a central metabolic hub Regulating the hallmarks of aging: Mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Mech Ageing Dev. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41812700/
Huang J, Qin Q, Li X et al. (2026). Bacteroides-associated NAD⁺ depletion correlates with exacerbated radiation-induced colorectal injury and impaired mucosal proliferative capacity. Gut Microbes. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41807298/
Zhou H, Zhao X, Li Y et al. (2026). Nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation modulates gut microbiota and metabolites to mitigate Alzheimer's disease pathology in APP/PS1 mice. J Alzheimers Dis. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41805251/
Zhou E, Zhao H, Yu Y et al. (2026). Combined exposure of cold and hypoxia: a driver for hypertension and the underlying role of the microbiota-gut-brain axis. J Hypertens. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41800819/
Huang Y, Zhao E, Zhao G et al. (2026). H3K18 lactylation-mediated SPHK1-SIRT1 feedback loop accelerates pyroptosis of tubular epithelial cells in sepsis-associated acute kidney injury. Theranostics. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41799201/
Dong M, Zhang Q, Wang Y et al. (2026). Restructuring tilth layers suppresses cotton Verticillium wilt through the niacinamide-mediated enrichment of beneficial Pseudomonas. Microbiol Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41793890/
Saida M, Saeki N, Sakai H et al. (2026). β-Nicotinamide mononucleotide preserves muscle strength in septic male mice. Sci Rep. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41792260/
Kim JH, Park SJ, Lee JA et al. (2026). PRPS1 (p.V42L) Mutation in Arts Syndrome Induces Aberrant Neural Stem Cell Development and Neuronal Senescence-Like Phenotype: Rescue by Nicotinamide Mononucleotide Supplementation. Int J Stem Cells. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41787648/
Zhou Y, Wu X, Xu X et al. (2026). Sirt1-eIF2α axis drives pro-inflammatory macrophage activation through ER stress aggravating liver IRI in aged mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41775225/
Zhang D, Li Z, Meng X et al. (2026). Nicotinamide Mononucleotide Decreases Secretion of Proinflammatory Cytokines via the NAD (+) /SIRT1/p65 Axis. ACS Omega. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41768621/
Jin X, Luo X, Shen W et al. (2026). Nicotinamide Riboside Alleviates Heat Stress-Induced Intestinal Dysfunction by Enhancing Antioxidant Capacity, Restoring Immune Homeostasis, and Modulating Gut Microbiota in a Boar Model. Mol Nutr Food Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41761881/
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Cornea et al — Nutrients (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14245294
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McLean et al — Nutr Diet (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/1747-0080.12593
Eswaran et al — J Acad Nutr Diet (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2019.03.003
Caballeria et al — Psychol Med (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720002925
Caut et al — Matern Child Nutr (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12916
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Vandewalle et al — Front Immunol (2020). [Review]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.01318
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B vitamin synergy — established (Established). [Established science].
The Benefits of Vitamin B5
Vitamin B5
Bioavailable Form
Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5) is an essential water-soluble vitamin found in virtually all foods, which is reflected in its name (from the Greek "pantos" meaning "everywhere"). It is a component of coenzyme A (CoA), one of the most important molecules in metabolism, essential for energy production, hormone synthesis, and the manufacture of fatty acids.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal mental performance (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal synthesis of steroid hormones, vitamin D, and neurotransmitters (EFSA approved)
- Supports the reduction of tiredness and fatigue (EFSA approved)
- Component of Coenzyme A, involved in 70+ metabolic pathways
- Found in virtually all foods ("pantos" = everywhere)
Biochemistry Timeline
Pantothenic acid is water-soluble and well-absorbed. Because it is so widely available in food, isolated deficiency is very rare. Blood levels respond quickly to supplementation. There is no established European upper limit due to its excellent safety profile.
Skin and Wound Healing
Pantothenic acid (and its derivative dexpanthenol/panthenol) has been widely used in skincare and wound healing products. It supports skin cell regeneration and the formation of new tissue. While this is primarily a topical application, internal supplementation supports the body's overall capacity for tissue repair.
Stress Adaptation
Because pantothenic acid is needed for the synthesis of cortisol and other stress hormones, it supports the body's ability to respond to and recover from stress. Adequate pantothenic acid ensures that the adrenal glands, which produce stress hormones, have the raw materials they need for optimal function.
Summary
Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5) is an essential component of Coenzyme A, supporting energy production, hormone synthesis, mental performance, and fatigue reduction. It is found in virtually all foods and is well-tolerated with no established upper limit. EFSA recognises its contributions to energy metabolism, mental performance, steroid hormone synthesis, and tiredness reduction.
FAQs
How much pantothenic acid do I need?
The adequate intake for adults is 5 mg per day. There is no established upper limit. Supplements commonly provide 5-10 mg per day within B-complex formulations.
Is pantothenic acid the same as panthenol in skincare?
Panthenol (dexpanthenol) is a derivative of pantothenic acid used topically in skincare. When applied to skin, it converts to pantothenic acid and supports skin hydration and repair.
Is it safe during pregnancy?
Yes, pantothenic acid is considered safe during pregnancy. Adequate intake supports both maternal and fetal health.
Research
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Kumari G, Pal AC, Singh P et al. (2026). Continuous In Vitro Propagation of the Human Pathogen Babesia microti in Human Erythrocytes. bioRxiv. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41847018/
González-Mercado VJ, Jean Lim S, Kumar Singh P et al. (2026). Dietary Quality and Microbiome Profiles among Rectal Cancer Patients: A Cross-Sectional Pilot Study. P R Health Sci J. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41842880/
Bartella L, Mazzotti F, Santoro I et al. (2026). HPLC-Orbitrap-MS for the Determination of B-Vitamins in Fruit Juices and Food Supplements. J Mass Spectrom. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41833989/
Wang H, Zhao Y, Dang D et al. (2026). Structure-function relationship of Konjac glucomannan with varying acetylation degrees in modulating gut microbiota and alleviating prediabetes. Carbohydr Polym. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41832011/
Liu X, Jin R, Domingo R et al. (2026). The Plasmodium falciparum PPCS is a unique heteromeric complex with prokaryote-like activity and is a target of pantothenate analogs. Sci Adv. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41824577/
Liu S, Wang M, Wang W (2026). [Analysis of urine biomarkers in urothelial carcinoma based on untargeted metabolomics]. Se Pu. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41814906/
Zhang Y, Zhou T, Luo Z et al. (2026). Comparative Study of B Vitamins in Multiple Tissues of Oilseed Crops and Leafty Vegetables Reveal Sesame as a Valuable Resource in Vitamin B(3), B(6) and B(12). Antioxidants (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41750605/
Detopoulou P, Yannakoulia M, Fragopoulou E et al. (2026). Validation of the food compass score through 24 h recalls and measurement of erythrocyte fatty acids in a mediterranean population. Eur J Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41739225/
López-Sánchez M, Mendoza-Mota H, De-la-Cruz-Martínez L et al. (2026). Optimization of Indole- and Pyrazole-fused Glycyrrhetinic Acid Derivatives as Potent PTP1B Inhibitors: In Silico, In Vitro, In Vivo, and Metabolomic Studies. ACS Bio Med Chem Au. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41726330/
Ramírez JCL, Vega-Cárdenas M, Vargas-Morales JM et al. (2026). Dietary Profile, Soluble Receptor for Advanced Glycation End Products (sRAGE) and Interleukin-6 in Individuals With Obesity and Periodontitis. Oral Dis. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41725044/
Kheirouri S, Alizadeh M (2026). Pantothenic Acid and Parkinson Disease: A Systematic Review of Metabolomics Analysis Studies. Nutr Rev. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41712554/
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B vitamin synergy — established (Established). [Established science].
The Benefits of Vitamin B6
Vitamin B6
Hormonal Balance
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) is an essential water-soluble vitamin involved in over 100 enzyme reactions in the body. It is particularly important for protein metabolism, neurotransmitter production, immune function, and hormonal balance. B6 plays a central role in producing the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, and GABA, making it key for mood and nervous system health.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to the regulation of hormonal activity (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal psychological function (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal energy-yielding metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal function of the immune system (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal red blood cell formation (EFSA approved)
Biochemistry Timeline
B6 is water-soluble and blood levels respond quickly to supplementation, typically within 1 to 2 weeks. For PMS-related benefits, supplementation throughout the cycle (or at least during the luteal phase) for 2 to 3 cycles is typically recommended to assess effectiveness.
The European upper limit for supplemental B6 is 25 mg per day for long-term use, though short-term higher doses have been used in clinical studies. Very high doses over prolonged periods can cause nerve-related side effects, so moderate, consistent intake is preferred.
Protein and Amino Acid Metabolism
B6's involvement in over 100 enzyme reactions relates primarily to amino acid metabolism. It is essential for the transamination, decarboxylation, and deamination of amino acids, which are fundamental processes for protein utilisation in the body.
This makes B6 particularly important for those with higher protein intakes or increased metabolic demands. EFSA recognises that vitamin B6 contributes to normal protein and glycogen metabolism.
Homocysteine Metabolism
Together with folate and B12, vitamin B6 helps metabolise homocysteine, an amino acid that at elevated levels is associated with cardiovascular risk. B6 converts homocysteine via an alternative pathway (transsulfuration to cysteine), complementing the folate/B12 methylation pathway.
EFSA recognises that vitamin B6 contributes to normal homocysteine metabolism. Maintaining adequate B6, B12, and folate levels together provides comprehensive homocysteine management.
Summary
Vitamin B6 is a versatile water-soluble vitamin essential for neurotransmitter production, hormonal balance, immune function, and energy metabolism. It is particularly valued in women's health for its role in managing PMS symptoms and supporting mood through serotonin and dopamine production.
EFSA recognises B6's contribution to hormonal regulation, psychological function, nervous system health, energy metabolism, and immune function. Regular intake is important as the body does not store B6, and benefits for PMS typically require 2 to 3 cycles of consistent supplementation.
FAQs
How much vitamin B6 do I need?
The recommended daily intake for adults is 1.2-1.4 mg. For PMS support, research has used 50-100 mg/day. The European upper limit for long-term use is 25 mg/day. Higher therapeutic doses should be used under guidance.
Can B6 help with morning sickness?
Vitamin B6 has been studied for pregnancy-related nausea and is considered safe during pregnancy. Some healthcare providers recommend it as a first-line approach for mild morning sickness. Consult your healthcare provider for appropriate dosing.
Are there side effects from too much B6?
Very high doses (above 200 mg/day) taken for extended periods can cause peripheral neuropathy (nerve damage causing numbness and tingling). This is reversible upon stopping. Moderate supplementation within guidelines is safe.
Is B6 safe during pregnancy?
Yes, B6 is important during pregnancy. It supports fetal brain development and may help with nausea. Follow your healthcare provider's guidance on dosage.
Research
Liu X et al. – The journal of prevention of Alzheimer's disease (2026). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41764841/
Althubity AA – Molecular medicine reports (2026). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41235668/
Alvarez M et al. – Current nutrition reports (2026). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41609902/
Tariq L et al. – Physiologia plantarum (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40671330/
Qin Y et al. – Frontiers in endocrinology (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41127511/
Banan Khojasteh MH et al. – Critical reviews in food science and nutrition (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39115011/
Banihani SA – The world journal of men's health (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40583024/
Chang J et al. – European journal of nutrition (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38300291/
Giuca MR – European journal of paediatric dentistry (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39212455/
Xu Q et al. – Zhonghua wei zhong bing ji jiu yi xue (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39697032/
Jayawardena R et al. – Archives of gynecology and obstetrics (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36719452/
Muhamad R et al. – Nutrients (2023). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37447150/
C Curtin A et al. – Journal of dietary supplements (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35109763/
Godfrey KM et al. – PLoS medicine (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38051700/
Hersant H et al. – CNS drugs (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37603263/
Choi SW et al. – Nutrition research and practice (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37529262/
Munteanu C et al. – Nutrients (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38201854/
Field DT et al. – Human psychopharmacology (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35851507/
Ettinger S – Current nutrition reports (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36018501/
Bossard V et al. – Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angeles County, Calif.) (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35810581/
Stach K et al. – Nutrients (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34579110/
Behrens A et al. – Systematic reviews (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32414424/
Khorasani F et al. – Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology : the journal of the Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (2020). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31215276/
Reininghaus EZ et al. – Nutrients (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33171595/
Retallick-Brown et al — J Altern Complement Med (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2019.0305
Wallace TC et al. – Journal of nutrition in gerontology and geriatrics (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31502930/
Wilson MP et al. – Journal of inherited metabolic disease (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30671974/
Boelig RC et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2016). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27168518/
McParlin C et al. – JAMA (2016). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27701665/
O'Donnell A et al. – Health technology assessment (Winchester, England) (2016). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27731292/
El-Lithy et al — J Obstet Gynaecol (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3109/01443615.2014.960823
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De Souza MC et al. – Journal of women's health & gender-based medicine (2000). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10746516/
Macdougall M – The Western journal of medicine (2000). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10778376/
Kleijnen J et al. – Biological psychiatry (1991). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1828703/
Vitamin B6 and serotonin synthesis in depression. [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17187801/
Vitamin B6 for PMS: double-blind crossover trial. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3299182/
Vitamin B6 and homocysteine metabolism. [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18838531/
Pyridoxine supplementation for carpal tunnel syndrome. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15964874/
Vitamin B6 status and associations with mood disorders. [Review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6930825/
Vitamin B6 in neurodegenerative diseases. [Review]. https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/lddd/2019/00000016/00000007/art00010
Vitamin B6 supplementation and PMS symptoms. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17541043/
Pyridoxine for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy. [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27593095/
Vitamin B6 in inflammation and immune function. [Review]. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0098299716300395
Vitamin B6 and chronic diseases: epidemiological review. [Review]. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/12/1/236
49 studies — Vitamin B6
Liu X et al. – The journal of prevention of Alzheimer's disease (2026). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41764841/
Althubity AA – Molecular medicine reports (2026). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41235668/
Alvarez M et al. – Current nutrition reports (2026). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41609902/
Tariq L et al. – Physiologia plantarum (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40671330/
Qin Y et al. – Frontiers in endocrinology (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41127511/
Banan Khojasteh MH et al. – Critical reviews in food science and nutrition (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39115011/
Banihani SA – The world journal of men's health (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40583024/
Chang J et al. – European journal of nutrition (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38300291/
Giuca MR – European journal of paediatric dentistry (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39212455/
Xu Q et al. – Zhonghua wei zhong bing ji jiu yi xue (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39697032/
Jayawardena R et al. – Archives of gynecology and obstetrics (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36719452/
Muhamad R et al. – Nutrients (2023). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37447150/
C Curtin A et al. – Journal of dietary supplements (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35109763/
Godfrey KM et al. – PLoS medicine (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38051700/
Hersant H et al. – CNS drugs (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37603263/
Choi SW et al. – Nutrition research and practice (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37529262/
Munteanu C et al. – Nutrients (2023). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38201854/
Field DT et al. – Human psychopharmacology (2022). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35851507/
Ettinger S – Current nutrition reports (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36018501/
Bossard V et al. – Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angeles County, Calif.) (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35810581/
Stach K et al. – Nutrients (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34579110/
Behrens A et al. – Systematic reviews (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32414424/
Khorasani F et al. – Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology : the journal of the Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (2020). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31215276/
Reininghaus EZ et al. – Nutrients (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33171595/
Retallick-Brown et al — J Altern Complement Med (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2019.0305
Wallace TC et al. – Journal of nutrition in gerontology and geriatrics (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31502930/
Wilson MP et al. – Journal of inherited metabolic disease (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30671974/
Boelig RC et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2016). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27168518/
McParlin C et al. – JAMA (2016). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27701665/
O'Donnell A et al. – Health technology assessment (Winchester, England) (2016). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27731292/
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The Benefits of Folic Acid
Folic Acid
Stable form
Folic acid (Vitamin B9) is essential for cell division, DNA synthesis, and the formation of red blood cells. It is perhaps best known for its critical role during pregnancy in preventing neural tube defects, but its benefits extend throughout life, supporting cognitive health, mood, and cardiovascular wellness through homocysteine metabolism.
Key Highlights
- Supplemental folic acid increases maternal folate status; low status is a risk factor for neural tube defects (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to maternal tissue growth during pregnancy (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal blood formation (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal amino acid synthesis (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal psychological function (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue (EFSA approved)
- Has a role in the process of cell division (EFSA approved)
Biochemistry Timeline
Folate is water-soluble, so blood levels respond relatively quickly to supplementation, typically increasing within 1 to 2 weeks. For pregnancy-related benefits, supplementation should begin at least 1 month before conception, as the neural tube forms within the first 28 days.
For cognitive benefits, the FACIT trial used 3 years of supplementation, suggesting that long-term consistent intake is most beneficial for brain health. Improvements in anaemia-related fatigue may be noticed within 4 to 8 weeks.
Homocysteine Metabolism
Folate, together with vitamins B12 and B6, plays a key role in metabolising homocysteine, an amino acid that at elevated levels is associated with increased cardiovascular risk and cognitive decline.
EFSA recognises that folate contributes to normal homocysteine metabolism. By helping convert homocysteine to methionine, folate supports cardiovascular health and provides the methylation substrates needed for numerous biological processes. Maintaining adequate folate, B12, and B6 levels is one of the most practical ways to keep homocysteine in a healthy range.
Immune Function
Folate supports the normal function of the immune system, an EFSA-approved health claim. It is needed for the rapid cell division that occurs when the immune system mounts a response to infection, including the production of white blood cells and antibodies.
Adequate folate intake ensures that the immune system can respond effectively when needed. This is particularly relevant during pregnancy, when immune demands increase alongside the already elevated folate requirements for fetal development.
Summary
Folic acid (Vitamin B9) is essential for cell division, DNA synthesis, red blood cell formation, and cognitive health. Its most critical role is in preventing neural tube defects during early pregnancy, which is why supplementation is recommended for all women of childbearing age.
Beyond pregnancy, folate supports cognitive function (with research showing reduced dementia risk), homocysteine metabolism, immune function, and energy levels. In Denmark, where food is not fortified with folic acid, awareness of dietary intake and supplementation is particularly important.
FAQs
When should I start taking folic acid before pregnancy?
The Danish Health Authority recommends starting folic acid supplementation at least 1 month before conception and continuing through the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. Since many pregnancies are unplanned, all women of childbearing age who might become pregnant are advised to maintain adequate folate intake.
What is the difference between folate and folic acid?
Folate is the natural form found in food. Folic acid is the synthetic form used in supplements and food fortification. Both are converted to the active form (5-MTHF) in the body. Some people with MTHFR gene variants may process folic acid less efficiently and benefit from methylfolate (5-MTHF) supplements instead.
How much folic acid do I need?
The recommended daily intake for adults is 200-400 µg. For women planning pregnancy, 400 µg of supplemental folic acid is recommended. The European upper limit for supplemental folic acid is 1,000 µg per day.
Can men benefit from folic acid?
Yes, folate supports cognitive health, homocysteine metabolism, and cell division in everyone. It is important for both men and women, though the specific pregnancy-related benefits apply to women.
Are there any side effects?
Folic acid is generally well-tolerated. Very high doses can mask B12 deficiency symptoms, which is why supplementation should be balanced and not exceed recommended levels without medical guidance.
Research
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The Benefits of Vitamin C
Vitamin C
Antioxidant
Vitamin C is a powerful antioxidant essential for immune function, collagen formation, and the protection of cells from oxidative stress. We use vitamin C derived from acerola cherry, a whole-food source that provides naturally occurring bioflavonoids alongside the vitamin C, which may support better absorption compared to synthetic ascorbic acid.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to the normal function of the immune system (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal collagen formation for skin, blood vessels, bones, cartilage, gums, and teeth (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to the protection of cells from oxidative stress (EFSA approved)
- Increases iron absorption (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal energy-yielding metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Derived from acerola cherry for enhanced bioavailability
Biochemistry Timeline
Vitamin C is water-soluble, meaning the body does not store it and relies on regular daily intake. Blood levels can improve within days of starting supplementation, and immune function benefits are generally seen with consistent daily intake of 200 mg or more.
For collagen-related benefits (skin firmness, wound healing), consistent supplementation over 8 to 12 weeks is typically needed to see visible improvements, as collagen turnover in the skin is a gradual process.
Energy and Fatigue
Vitamin C contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism and to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue, both EFSA-approved health claims. It plays a role in the metabolism of fats and the production of carnitine, a molecule that helps transport fatty acids into mitochondria for energy production.
For those experiencing persistent fatigue, ensuring adequate vitamin C intake supports the body's ability to produce energy efficiently. This is particularly relevant for smokers, who have 25% lower plasma vitamin C levels and are recommended to consume an additional 35 mg/day (IOM recommendation).
Antioxidant Protection
Vitamin C is one of the body's primary water-soluble antioxidants. It neutralises free radicals, protects cellular components from oxidative damage, and helps regenerate other antioxidants, including vitamin E.
This antioxidant function is important for overall health, as oxidative stress is implicated in ageing, cardiovascular disease, and various chronic conditions. By choosing acerola cherry as our source, the naturally occurring bioflavonoids and plant compounds provide additional antioxidant support beyond vitamin C alone. EFSA recognises that vitamin C contributes to the protection of cells from oxidative stress.
Summary
Vitamin C is an essential antioxidant that supports immune function, collagen formation, iron absorption, and energy production. We use acerola cherry as a whole-food source, providing naturally occurring bioflavonoids for potentially enhanced absorption. Regular supplementation reduces cold duration and supports the body's daily needs.
As a water-soluble vitamin, consistent daily intake is important since the body does not store vitamin C. It is particularly relevant for those with higher needs, including smokers, women with iron absorption concerns, and anyone seeking to support skin health and immune resilience.
FAQs
Why acerola cherry instead of synthetic vitamin C?
Acerola cherry is one of nature's richest sources of vitamin C and provides it alongside bioflavonoids and other plant compounds that may enhance absorption and provide additional antioxidant benefits. It represents a whole-food approach to vitamin C supplementation.
How much vitamin C do I need daily?
The recommended daily intake for adults in the EU is 80 mg. For immune support during and after exercise, EFSA recognises benefits at 200 mg/day. The European upper limit is 1,000 mg/day from supplements. Most people benefit from 200-500 mg/day.
Can I take too much vitamin C?
Because vitamin C is water-soluble, excess amounts are excreted in urine. However, very high doses (above 1,000 mg/day) can cause digestive discomfort in some people and may increase the risk of kidney stones in susceptible individuals.
Does vitamin C really prevent colds?
Research shows that regular vitamin C supplementation does not prevent colds in the general population but does reduce their duration (by about 8% in adults) and severity. The benefit is more pronounced in those under physical stress.
Is vitamin C safe during pregnancy?
Yes, vitamin C is important during pregnancy for both mother and baby. It supports iron absorption, immune function, and collagen formation. Follow your healthcare provider's guidance on dosage.
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The Benefits of Vitamin D3
Vitamin D3
Bioactive Form
Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol) is often called the "sunshine vitamin" because our bodies produce it when skin is exposed to sunlight. It plays a fundamental role in calcium absorption, bone health, immune function, and mood regulation. For those of us living in Scandinavia and Northern Europe, where sunlight is limited for much of the year, supplementation is widely recommended by Nordic health authorities.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to normal absorption of calcium and phosphorus (EFSA approved)
- Supports the maintenance of normal bones and teeth (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal function of the immune system (EFSA approved)
- Supports the maintenance of normal muscle function (EFSA approved)
- Has a role in the process of cell division (EFSA approved)
- Especially important in Nordic countries where sunlight is limited Oct-Mar
Biochemistry Timeline
Vitamin D3 supplementation typically takes 4 to 12 weeks to significantly raise blood levels, depending on your starting point and dosage. The Danish Health Authority recommends measuring 25(OH)D levels to assess status. A level above 50 nmol/L is generally considered sufficient, though some researchers suggest 75 nmol/L as optimal.
Because vitamin D is fat-soluble, it is best absorbed when taken with a meal containing some fat. Unlike water-soluble vitamins, vitamin D is stored in body fat, so consistent daily supplementation is more effective than occasional large doses.
Mood and Seasonal Well-being
Many people in northern countries notice changes in their mood during the darker months. Research suggests that vitamin D plays a role in serotonin production, and low vitamin D levels have been associated with low mood and seasonal affective patterns.
While vitamin D supplementation alone is not a treatment for mood disorders, maintaining adequate levels may help support emotional well-being, particularly during the long Scandinavian winter. Studies among Danish and Nordic populations have confirmed that seasonal vitamin D deficiency is common, with levels reaching their lowest point in March (Danish seasonal study, 2019).
Pregnancy and Early Development
Vitamin D is particularly important during pregnancy. It supports the healthy development of the baby's bones, teeth, and immune system. The Danish Health Authority recommends that all pregnant women supplement with vitamin D.
Adequate maternal vitamin D status has been linked to healthier pregnancy outcomes. EFSA recognises that vitamin D is needed for normal growth and development of bone in children, and contributes to the normal function of the immune system in both mother and child.
Summary
Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol) is essential for calcium absorption, bone health, immune function, and muscle maintenance. Living in Denmark and Scandinavia means our bodies cannot produce enough vitamin D from sunlight for roughly half the year, making supplementation a well-supported choice.
Nordic health authorities, including the Danish Fødevarestyrelsen, recommend vitamin D supplementation during the winter months. Consistent daily supplementation of the D3 form is the most effective approach to maintaining adequate levels and supporting overall health throughout the year.
FAQs
How much vitamin D3 should I take?
The Nordic Nutrition Recommendations suggest 10 µg (400 IU) daily for most adults, with higher doses considered for those at risk of deficiency. Your healthcare provider can advise on the right dose based on your blood levels and individual circumstances.
Can I get enough vitamin D from food alone?
It is difficult to obtain sufficient vitamin D from diet alone. The richest food sources include oily fish (salmon, mackerel, herring), egg yolks, and fortified foods. Most people in Nordic countries benefit from supplementation, especially during winter.
Is it possible to take too much vitamin D?
Vitamin D toxicity is rare but possible with very high supplementation over extended periods. It is best to stay within recommended guidelines and have your levels checked if you are taking higher doses. The European upper limit for adults is 100 µg (4,000 IU) per day.
Should I take vitamin D with food?
Yes, vitamin D3 is fat-soluble and is best absorbed when taken alongside a meal containing some dietary fat. Even a small amount of fat (such as that found in nuts, avocado, or olive oil) can improve absorption.
Is vitamin D3 safe during pregnancy?
Yes, vitamin D supplementation is recommended during pregnancy. The Danish Health Authority advises all pregnant women to supplement. Consult your healthcare provider for personalised dosage guidance.
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The Benefits of Vitamin D (cod liver oil)
Vitamin D (cod liver oil)
Vitamin D from Cod Liver Oil provides naturally occurring cholecalciferol (D3), the same form produced by your skin in sunlight. It supports calcium absorption, bone health, immune function, and muscle function. As a naturally occurring component of cod liver oil, it is delivered alongside omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin A.
Key Highlights
- Naturally occurring cholecalciferol (D3)
- Supports bone health, immune function, and muscle function (EFSA approved)
- Delivered alongside omega-3 and vitamin A in cod liver oil
- Particularly important in Nordic countries Oct-Mar
- See our Vitamin D3 page for detailed research and information
Biochemistry Timeline
Vitamin D3 from cod liver oil is well-absorbed due to the fat-soluble matrix. See our Vitamin D3 ingredient page for detailed information on biochemistry and timelines.
Summary
Vitamin D from cod liver oil provides naturally occurring D3 alongside omega-3 and vitamin A. Especially important in Nordic countries during winter. See our main Vitamin D3 page for detailed research and EFSA claims.
FAQs
Why get vitamin D from cod liver oil rather than a standalone supplement?
Cod liver oil provides vitamin D alongside vitamin A and omega-3 fatty acids, which may work synergistically. The natural fats in cod liver oil also enhance absorption of fat-soluble vitamin D.
How much vitamin D does cod liver oil typically provide?
This varies by product, but cod liver oil is one of the richest natural food sources of vitamin D. One teaspoon can provide 400 to 1,000 IU, depending on the source and processing.
Is cod liver oil safe during pregnancy?
Cod liver oil can be beneficial during pregnancy for its vitamin D and omega-3 content, but care must be taken with vitamin A levels. Consult your healthcare provider to ensure the amount of preformed vitamin A stays within safe limits.
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The Benefits of Vitamin E
Vitamin E
Bioavailable form
Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant that protects cell membranes from oxidative damage. It plays an important role in immune function, skin health, and cellular protection. As a key defender of the body's lipid structures, vitamin E works alongside vitamin C to provide comprehensive antioxidant coverage.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to the protection of cells from oxidative stress (EFSA approved)
- Fat-soluble antioxidant that protects cell membranes
- Works synergistically with vitamin C for comprehensive antioxidant coverage
- May reduce CRP (inflammatory marker) in those with elevated levels
- Supports skin health and barrier function
- No increase in mortality risk at standard supplementation levels
Biochemistry Timeline
Vitamin E is fat-soluble and stored in body fat and the liver, meaning it takes time to build up to optimal levels. Blood levels typically increase within 2 to 4 weeks of supplementation, while anti-inflammatory benefits (CRP reduction) were more pronounced with longer supplementation periods.
For skin-related benefits, consistent supplementation over 8 to 12 weeks is recommended. Vitamin E is best absorbed when taken with a meal containing dietary fat.
Hormonal Health and PCOS
Emerging research suggests that vitamin E may offer benefits for women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). A study by Karandish et al. (2022, Scientific Reports) found that vitamin E, alone or in combination with omega-3 and magnesium, reduced triglycerides, VLDL, LDL, hs-CRP, and hirsutism in women with PCOS.
These findings suggest that vitamin E may support metabolic and hormonal parameters in PCOS, though more research is needed. It works best as part of a comprehensive approach alongside lifestyle changes, diet, and appropriate medical care.
Menopausal Support
A 2023 review (Barcikowska et al., Nutrients) found that vitamin E may influence several aspects of menopausal health, including hot flashes, vascular health, lipid profiles, and vaginal changes. The review suggested vitamin E as a potential option when hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is contraindicated.
While vitamin E is not a replacement for HRT when clinically indicated, it may offer gentle support for some menopausal symptoms as part of a broader approach to well-being during this transition. Individual responses vary, and medical guidance should be sought for significant symptoms.
Summary
Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant that protects cell membranes from oxidative damage and works synergistically with vitamin C. It is important for cellular protection, skin health, and may support anti-inflammatory processes, hormonal balance, and menopausal comfort.
Research confirms no mortality risk at standard doses and meaningful CRP reduction in those with elevated inflammation. Vitamin E is best taken with food containing fat, and benefits develop over 4 to 12 weeks of consistent use.
FAQs
How much vitamin E do I need?
The recommended daily intake for adults in the EU is 12 mg (approximately 18 IU) of alpha-tocopherol. The European upper limit for supplementation is 300 mg per day. Most supplements provide 100-400 IU per day.
Can I get enough vitamin E from food?
A diet rich in nuts, seeds, and healthy oils can provide adequate vitamin E for many people. However, those with low-fat diets, absorption issues, or increased antioxidant needs may benefit from supplementation.
Is there a risk of taking too much?
At standard supplementation levels, vitamin E is safe and well-tolerated. Very high doses (above 800 IU/day) have been debated in research but a 2014 meta-analysis found no increase in mortality at doses up to 800 IU/day.
Should I take natural or synthetic vitamin E?
Natural vitamin E (d-alpha-tocopherol) is more bioavailable than synthetic (dl-alpha-tocopherol). When reading labels, look for the "d-" prefix, which indicates the natural form.
Is vitamin E safe during pregnancy?
Vitamin E is important during pregnancy for its antioxidant properties. Standard recommended amounts are considered safe. Consult your healthcare provider for personalised guidance.
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Tefagh et al — Sci Rep (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-09082-3
Zhao et al — Circulation (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.057642
Xu et al — Am J Clin Nutr (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqac013
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Ashley S et al. – Nutritional neuroscience (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31661399/
Vadarlis A et al. – Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32810309/
Lin M et al. – Clinics and research in hepatology and gastroenterology (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33272889/
Amini et al — Pain Res Manag (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5529741
Wimmers et al — Cell (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2021.05.039
Pham et al — Gut Microbes (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2021.1875774
Bozhedomov et al — Urologiia (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33818939/
Asbaghi et al. — Scientific Reports (Nature) (2020). [Meta-analysis (26 RCTs)]. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-73741-6
Asbaghi O et al. - Clinical Nutrition ESPEN (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32085897/
Ataei-Almanghadim K et al. – Complementary therapies in medicine (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31987231/
Rattanawiwatpong et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.13305
Endo et al — Influenza Other Respir Viruses (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/irv.12755
Zerbinati et al — Andrologia (2020). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/and.13543
Chen et al — BMC Womens Health (2020). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-020-00930-w
Li et al — J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jch.13866
Li et al — Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2020.02.024
Lewis et al. — Cochrane (2019). [Cochrane systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31528965/
Jiang et al — Am J Clin Nutr (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqy270
Lin et al — Int J Vitam Nutr Res (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1024/0300-9831/a000553
Hager et al — Arch Gynecol Obstet (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00404-019-05194-w
Leng et al — Biosci Rep (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1042/BSR20193311
Troisi et al — J Ovarian Res (2019). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13048-019-0500-x
Bo et al — Clin Nutr (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2017.12.020
Jayedi A et al. – Advances in nutrition (Bethesda, Md.) (2018). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30239557/
Alipour et al — Nutr Cancer (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/01635581.2018.1446088
Assmann et al — J Nutr (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxx061
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Farina N et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2017). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28128435/
Farina N et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2017). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28418065/
Ahmed et al — Reprod Biol (2017). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.repbio.2017.05.008
Nouri et al — Gynecol Obstet Invest (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000452662
Goodman et al — Trials (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-016-1524-9
Xu W et al. – Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry (2015). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26294005/
EFSA Panel — EFSA J (2015). [Regulatory opinion].
Abner et al. — Cardiovascular Drugs & Therapy (2014). [Meta-analysis (18 RCTs)]. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10557-014-6560-7
Rizvi et al. — Int J Prev Med (2014). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25489440/
Dysken ME et al. - JAMA (TEAM-AD) (2014). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24381967/
Traber MG - Free Radical Biology and Medicine (2014). [Expert Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24746618/
Gutarra-Vilchez RB et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2014). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25310622/
Lopes da Silva S et al. – Alzheimer's & dementia : the journal of the Alzheimer's Association (2014). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24144963/
Showell MG et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2013). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23913583/
Farina N et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2012). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23152215/
Biglia N et al. – Climacteric : the journal of the International Menopause Society (2009). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19415540/
Isaac MG et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2008). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18646084/
Bordeleau L et al. – Clinical therapeutics (2007). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17472816/
Ziaei S et al. – Gynecologic and obstetric investigation (2007). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17664882/
Lee et al. — JAMA Cardiol (2005). [Meta-analysis (19 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15537682/
Miller ER et al. - Annals of Internal Medicine (2005). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15668483/
Chertow B – MedGenMed : Medscape general medicine (2004). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15647709/
Heck AM et al. – American journal of health-system pharmacy : AJHP : official journal of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (2000). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10902065/
Tabet N et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2000). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11034775/
92 studies — Vitamin E
Amin AM et al. – Nutrition research (New York, N.Y.) (2026). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41418497/
Tan et al — PeerJ (2026). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.20744
Christopher et al — J Acad Nutr Diet (2026). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2026.156299
Ismail YA et al. – BMC neurology (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39939901/
Song et al — Cell Rep Med (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrm.2025.101939
Gaffney et al — Laryngoscope (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/lary.31902
Solmi et al — Mol Psychiatry (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-024-02733-z
Widyasanti et al — Open Vet J (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.5455/OVJ.2025.v15.i7.31
Yousefi-Nodeh H et al. – Health care for women international (2024). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36053717/
Malandris K et al. – Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38627972/
Chee NM et al. – Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39150005/
Wen H et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39412049/
Wang Y et al. – Drugs (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38478331/
Didangelos et al — Nutrients (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16183045
Posnakidis et al — Nutrients (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172914
Quah et al — Oral Dis (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/odi.14902
Sen et al — Int J Obes (Lond) (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41366-024-01472-z
Watling et al — Hepatology (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1097/HEP.0000000000000819
Izadi et al — BMC Womens Health (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-024-02980-w
Shan et al. — Nutrients (MDPI) (2023). [Umbrella review (32 MAs, 64 outcomes)]. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/15/15/3301
Barcikowska et al. — Nutrients (2023). [Systematic review (16 studies)].
Linus Pauling Institute / NIH - Micronutrient Information Center (2023). [Expert Review]. Safety/Dosing
Vogli S et al. – Nutrients (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37686767/
Ghasemi S et al. – BMC oral health (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38042793/
Ni C et al. – Molecular nutrition & food research (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37726247/
Wang MY et al. – Journal of digestive diseases (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37503812/
Gu Y et al. – Expert review of gastroenterology & hepatology (2023). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36689199/
Musazadeh et al — Int J Vitam Nutr Res (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1024/0300-9831/a000757
Zhou et al — Eur Geriatr Med (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41999-022-00720-7
Peña-Corona et al — Int J Mol Sci (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241914930
Karandish et al. — Sci Rep (2022). [Meta-analysis (10 RCTs)].
Salmani et al. — Clin Nutr ESPEN (2022). [Systematic review & MA].
Ahmad et al. — Sci Rep (2022). [Systematic review & MA (12 RCTs)].
Feduniw S et al. – Nutrients (2022). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36615817/
Poonyam P et al. – Asian Pacific journal of cancer prevention : APJCP (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36172650/
Power et al — Clin Nutr (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2021.12.004
Ren et al — Eur Neurol (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000525045
Tefagh et al — Sci Rep (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-09082-3
Zhao et al — Circulation (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.057642
Xu et al — Am J Clin Nutr (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqac013
Wang J et al. – Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34616506/
Ashley S et al. – Nutritional neuroscience (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31661399/
Vadarlis A et al. – Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32810309/
Lin M et al. – Clinics and research in hepatology and gastroenterology (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33272889/
Amini et al — Pain Res Manag (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5529741
Wimmers et al — Cell (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2021.05.039
Pham et al — Gut Microbes (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2021.1875774
Bozhedomov et al — Urologiia (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33818939/
Asbaghi et al. — Scientific Reports (Nature) (2020). [Meta-analysis (26 RCTs)]. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-73741-6
Asbaghi O et al. - Clinical Nutrition ESPEN (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32085897/
Ataei-Almanghadim K et al. – Complementary therapies in medicine (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31987231/
Rattanawiwatpong et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.13305
Endo et al — Influenza Other Respir Viruses (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/irv.12755
Zerbinati et al — Andrologia (2020). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/and.13543
Chen et al — BMC Womens Health (2020). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-020-00930-w
Li et al — J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jch.13866
Li et al — Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2020.02.024
Lewis et al. — Cochrane (2019). [Cochrane systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31528965/
Jiang et al — Am J Clin Nutr (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqy270
Lin et al — Int J Vitam Nutr Res (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1024/0300-9831/a000553
Hager et al — Arch Gynecol Obstet (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00404-019-05194-w
Leng et al — Biosci Rep (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1042/BSR20193311
Troisi et al — J Ovarian Res (2019). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13048-019-0500-x
Bo et al — Clin Nutr (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2017.12.020
Jayedi A et al. – Advances in nutrition (Bethesda, Md.) (2018). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30239557/
Alipour et al — Nutr Cancer (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/01635581.2018.1446088
Assmann et al — J Nutr (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxx061
Shatzel JJ et al. – Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28182323/
Farina N et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2017). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28128435/
Farina N et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2017). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28418065/
Ahmed et al — Reprod Biol (2017). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.repbio.2017.05.008
Nouri et al — Gynecol Obstet Invest (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000452662
Goodman et al — Trials (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-016-1524-9
Xu W et al. – Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry (2015). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26294005/
EFSA Panel — EFSA J (2015). [Regulatory opinion].
Abner et al. — Cardiovascular Drugs & Therapy (2014). [Meta-analysis (18 RCTs)]. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10557-014-6560-7
Rizvi et al. — Int J Prev Med (2014). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25489440/
Dysken ME et al. - JAMA (TEAM-AD) (2014). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24381967/
Traber MG - Free Radical Biology and Medicine (2014). [Expert Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24746618/
Gutarra-Vilchez RB et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2014). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25310622/
Lopes da Silva S et al. – Alzheimer's & dementia : the journal of the Alzheimer's Association (2014). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24144963/
Showell MG et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2013). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23913583/
Farina N et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2012). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23152215/
Biglia N et al. – Climacteric : the journal of the International Menopause Society (2009). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19415540/
Isaac MG et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2008). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18646084/
Bordeleau L et al. – Clinical therapeutics (2007). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17472816/
Ziaei S et al. – Gynecologic and obstetric investigation (2007). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17664882/
Lee et al. — JAMA Cardiol (2005). [Meta-analysis (19 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15537682/
Miller ER et al. - Annals of Internal Medicine (2005). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15668483/
Chertow B – MedGenMed : Medscape general medicine (2004). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15647709/
Heck AM et al. – American journal of health-system pharmacy : AJHP : official journal of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (2000). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10902065/
Tabet N et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2000). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11034775/
The Benefits of Vitamin K2
Vitamin K2
Bioavailable Form
Vitamin K2 (MK-7) is a fat-soluble vitamin that plays a crucial role in directing calcium to where it is needed (bones and teeth) and away from where it can cause harm (arteries and soft tissues). Often overlooked, K2 works synergistically with vitamin D3 and calcium to support both bone health and cardiovascular wellness.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to the maintenance of normal bones (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal blood coagulation (EFSA approved)
- Directs calcium to bones and away from arteries
- Rotterdam Study: 41% lower CHD risk, 57% lower CHD mortality with high K2 intake
- Works synergistically with vitamin D3 and calcium
- MK-7 form has longer half-life for sustained activity
Biochemistry Timeline
Vitamin K2 supplementation can begin to influence osteocalcin carboxylation (a marker of K2 activity) within 2 to 4 weeks. For vascular benefits, the 3-year Knapen study suggests that longer-term supplementation provides the most meaningful cardiovascular improvements.
K2 is fat-soluble and best absorbed when taken with a meal containing some dietary fat. Because it works synergistically with D3, many people find it convenient to take both together. At 180 µg/day of MK-7, significant bone and vascular benefits have been demonstrated in clinical trials.
Women's Cardiovascular Health
The EPIC-NL study (2009), which followed 16,057 women for over 8 years, found that high intake of K2 (specifically the longer-chain menaquinones MK-7, MK-8, MK-9) was associated with reduced coronary heart disease risk in women. Once again, K1 showed no such association.
This is particularly relevant for women, as cardiovascular disease risk increases after menopause due to declining oestrogen levels. K2 supplementation may offer a meaningful layer of cardiovascular support during and after this transition, especially when combined with vitamin D3 and a heart-healthy lifestyle.
Dental Health
Vitamin K2 supports dental health through the same calcium-directing mechanism that benefits bones. By activating osteocalcin, K2 helps ensure that calcium is properly incorporated into teeth, supporting their strength and mineralisation.
EFSA recognises that vitamin K contributes to the maintenance of normal bones, and this extends to the mineralised tissues of teeth. Alongside good oral hygiene and adequate calcium and vitamin D intake, K2 supports the structural foundation of healthy teeth.
Summary
Vitamin K2 (MK-7) is a fat-soluble vitamin that directs calcium to bones and teeth while helping prevent its accumulation in arteries. Large population studies have shown significant cardiovascular benefits unique to K2 (not K1), including reduced heart disease risk and improved arterial flexibility.
K2 works synergistically with vitamin D3 and calcium, making this trio a well-supported combination for bone and cardiovascular health. MK-7 is the most effective form of K2, with a longer half-life and proven benefits at 180 µg/day. It is particularly relevant for postmenopausal women and anyone supplementing with vitamin D3.
FAQs
Why do I need K2 if I already take vitamin D3?
Vitamin D3 increases calcium absorption, but it does not control where that calcium goes. K2 ensures absorbed calcium is directed to bones and teeth rather than depositing in arteries. Think of D3 as the "calcium absorber" and K2 as the "calcium director." They work best together.
Is K2 the same as K1?
No. K1 (phylloquinone) is found in leafy greens and is primarily involved in blood clotting. K2 (menaquinone) has distinct roles in calcium metabolism and cardiovascular health. Population studies consistently show cardiovascular benefits for K2 but not K1.
How much K2 should I take?
Research has shown benefits at 180 µg/day of MK-7. This is the dose used in the Knapen et al. study that demonstrated improved arterial flexibility. Some formulations provide 45-200 µg per day.
Can I take K2 if I am on blood-thinning medication?
If you take warfarin or other vitamin K antagonists, consult your healthcare provider before taking K2 supplements, as vitamin K can interact with these medications. Newer anticoagulants (DOACs) do not interact with vitamin K in the same way, but medical guidance is still recommended.
Is K2 safe during pregnancy?
Vitamin K2 is generally considered safe during pregnancy. It supports maternal bone health and fetal skeletal development. Consult your healthcare provider for personalised dosage guidance.
Research
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Moore et al — Arch Osteoporos (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11657-023-01288-w
Naiyarakseree et al — Nutrients (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15112422
Eelderink et al — Am J Transplant (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajt.2022.12.015
Holden et al — Nephrol Dial Transplant (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfac191
Ma ML et al. – Frontiers in public health (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36033779/
Zhou et al — J Bone Miner Metab (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00774-022-01342-6
El Borolossy et al — Eur J Clin Nutr (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-021-01050-w
Diederichsen et al — Circulation (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.057008
Protic et al — Nutrients (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14142812
Stöhr et al — Clin Cardiol (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/clc.23819
Abrignani MG et al. – European journal of internal medicine (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33279389/
Rønn et al — Osteoporos Int (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05638-z
Hu et al — J Orthop Surg Res (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13018-021-02728-4
Solmaz et al — J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1515/jpem-2020-0637
Bartstra et al — Eur J Nutr (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-020-02412-z
De Vriese et al — J Am Soc Nephrol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2020111566
Ciric et al — Nutrients (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13030903
Zhang Y et al. – Calcified tissue international (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32060566/
Sato T et al. — Nutrients (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32429440/
Kuang et al — Food Funct (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9fo03063h
De Vriese et al — J Am Soc Nephrol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2019060579
Witham et al — J Am Soc Nephrol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2020020225
Halder et al. — Br J Nutr (2019). [Review]. General
Zwakenberg et al. — Atherosclerosis (2019). [Meta-analysis (8 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31395386/
Drugs for atrial fibrillation. (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31599871/
Halder M et al. — Int J Mol Sci (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31443207/
Su et al — Osteoporos Int (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-019-04853-7
Zwakenberg et al — Am J Clin Nutr (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqz147
Oikonomaki et al — Int Urol Nephrol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11255-019-02275-2
Lees et al — Heart (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1136/heartjnl-2018-313955
Kelly et al — Mol Nutr Food Res (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201900399
Chen et al — Eur J Nutr (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-019-01998-3
Verma et al — Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871530318666180703125007
van Ballegooijen et al — Nutrients (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11020231
Akbari S & Rasouli-Ghahroudi AA — J Clin Diagn Res (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30584505/
Schwalfenberg — Clin Nutr (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28040563/
Palermo A et al. – Metabolism: clinical and experimental (2017). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28403946/
Di Minno A et al. – Blood reviews (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28196633/
Dahlberg S et al. – Scandinavian journal of clinical and laboratory investigation (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28933567/
Schwalfenberg GK — Nutrients (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28621712/
McFarlin et al — Altern Ther Health Med (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28646812/
Sheng et al — Sci Rep (2017). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-09328-5
Violi F et al. – Medicine (2016). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26962786/
Knapen - 3yr postmenopausal RCT (2015). [RCT (3yr, n=244)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8483258/
Maresz — Integr Med (2015). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26770156/
Knapen MHJ et al. - Thrombosis and Haemostasis (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25694037/
Maresz K — Integr Med (Encinitas) (2015). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26770129/
Ghanny S et al. – Current drug discovery technologies (2012). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22023256/
Sato Y et al. – The Kurume medical journal (2011). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21778673/
Beulens et al. — Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis (2009). [Prospective cohort]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18722618/
Beulens JWJ et al. - Atherosclerosis (2009). [Prospective Cohort]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19179985/
Stevenson M et al. – Health technology assessment (Winchester, England) (2009). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19818211/
Beulens JW et al. — Atherosclerosis (2009). [Prospective cohort]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19179058/
Ishida Y – Clinical calcium (2008). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18830045/
Sinxadi P et al. – Cardiovascular journal of Africa (2008). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18776969/
Whelan AM et al. – The Annals of pharmacotherapy (2006). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16670364/
Geleijnse JM et al. - Journal of Nutrition (Rotterdam Study) (2004). [Prospective Cohort]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15514282/
82 studies — Vitamin K2
Ahmed SR et al. – Nutrients (2026). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41599883/
Lithgow et al — Med Sci Sports Exerc (2026). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000003901
Frontiers Endocrinol SR — Front Endocrinol (2025). [Systematic review & MA]. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/endocrinology/articles/10.3389/fendo.2025.1703116/full
Hashim MH et al. – Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania) (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40428819/
Nikpayam O et al. – Prostaglandins & other lipid mediators (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40054729/
Zhang Z et al. – Frontiers in endocrinology (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41268154/
Wen Z et al. – Frontiers in nutrition (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41393956/
Zhang YS et al. – Frontiers in medicine (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40678144/
Talasaz AH et al. – Seminars in thrombosis and hemostasis (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39288907/
Hasific et al — Atherosclerosis (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2025.120540
Zhang et al — Horm Metab Res (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-2371-1642
de Vries et al — Nutrients (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17050815
Poulikakos et al — Blood Purif (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000545745
Bone Joint Res 2024 - VK bone MA (2024). [SR + MA (RCTs)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11631259/
EPIC-NL - K2 CHD women (n=16,057) (2009). [Prospective cohort (8.1yr)]. https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/13/11/1646
Bone & Joint Research - BMD Meta-Analysis (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://boneandjoint.org.uk/Article/10.1302/2046-3758.1312.BJR-2024-0053.R1
Zhao QY et al. – Journal of nutritional science (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38282652/
Xie C et al. – Bone & joint research (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39657786/
Mittal P et al. – Hematology. American Society of Hematology. Education Program (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39644000/
Olie RH et al. – Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37758192/
Meer et al — Atherosclerosis (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2023.117307
Bladbjerg et al — J Ren Nutr (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2023.11.007
Stöhr et al — Sci Rep (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-67657-8
Li et al. — Front Nutr (2023). [Systematic review & MA (14 RCTs)]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1115069
Levy-Schousboe K et al. – Nephrology, dialysis, transplantation : official publication of the European Dialysis and Transplant Association - European Renal Association (2023). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36460034/
Moore et al — Arch Osteoporos (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11657-023-01288-w
Naiyarakseree et al — Nutrients (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15112422
Eelderink et al — Am J Transplant (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajt.2022.12.015
Holden et al — Nephrol Dial Transplant (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfac191
Ma ML et al. – Frontiers in public health (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36033779/
Zhou et al — J Bone Miner Metab (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00774-022-01342-6
El Borolossy et al — Eur J Clin Nutr (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-021-01050-w
Diederichsen et al — Circulation (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.057008
Protic et al — Nutrients (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14142812
Stöhr et al — Clin Cardiol (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/clc.23819
Abrignani MG et al. – European journal of internal medicine (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33279389/
Rønn et al — Osteoporos Int (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05638-z
Hu et al — J Orthop Surg Res (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13018-021-02728-4
Solmaz et al — J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1515/jpem-2020-0637
Bartstra et al — Eur J Nutr (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-020-02412-z
De Vriese et al — J Am Soc Nephrol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2020111566
Ciric et al — Nutrients (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13030903
Zhang Y et al. – Calcified tissue international (2020). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32060566/
Sato T et al. — Nutrients (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32429440/
Kuang et al — Food Funct (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9fo03063h
De Vriese et al — J Am Soc Nephrol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2019060579
Witham et al — J Am Soc Nephrol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2020020225
Halder et al. — Br J Nutr (2019). [Review]. General
Zwakenberg et al. — Atherosclerosis (2019). [Meta-analysis (8 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31395386/
Drugs for atrial fibrillation. (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31599871/
Halder M et al. — Int J Mol Sci (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31443207/
Su et al — Osteoporos Int (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-019-04853-7
Zwakenberg et al — Am J Clin Nutr (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqz147
Oikonomaki et al — Int Urol Nephrol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11255-019-02275-2
Lees et al — Heart (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1136/heartjnl-2018-313955
Kelly et al — Mol Nutr Food Res (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201900399
Chen et al — Eur J Nutr (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-019-01998-3
Verma et al — Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871530318666180703125007
van Ballegooijen et al — Nutrients (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11020231
Akbari S & Rasouli-Ghahroudi AA — J Clin Diagn Res (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30584505/
Schwalfenberg — Clin Nutr (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28040563/
Palermo A et al. – Metabolism: clinical and experimental (2017). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28403946/
Di Minno A et al. – Blood reviews (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28196633/
Dahlberg S et al. – Scandinavian journal of clinical and laboratory investigation (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28933567/
Schwalfenberg GK — Nutrients (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28621712/
McFarlin et al — Altern Ther Health Med (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28646812/
Sheng et al — Sci Rep (2017). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-09328-5
Violi F et al. – Medicine (2016). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26962786/
Knapen - 3yr postmenopausal RCT (2015). [RCT (3yr, n=244)]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8483258/
Maresz — Integr Med (2015). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26770156/
Knapen MHJ et al. - Thrombosis and Haemostasis (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25694037/
Maresz K — Integr Med (Encinitas) (2015). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26770129/
Ghanny S et al. – Current drug discovery technologies (2012). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22023256/
Sato Y et al. – The Kurume medical journal (2011). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21778673/
Beulens et al. — Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis (2009). [Prospective cohort]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18722618/
Beulens JWJ et al. - Atherosclerosis (2009). [Prospective Cohort]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19179985/
Stevenson M et al. – Health technology assessment (Winchester, England) (2009). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19818211/
Beulens JW et al. — Atherosclerosis (2009). [Prospective cohort]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19179058/
Ishida Y – Clinical calcium (2008). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18830045/
Sinxadi P et al. – Cardiovascular journal of Africa (2008). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18776969/
Whelan AM et al. – The Annals of pharmacotherapy (2006). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16670364/
Geleijnse JM et al. - Journal of Nutrition (Rotterdam Study) (2004). [Prospective Cohort]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15514282/
The Benefits of Zinc
Zinc
Bioavailable Form
Zinc Glycinate is a chelated form of zinc bound to the amino acid glycine. This chelation enhances absorption and makes it gentler on the stomach compared to other zinc forms. It supports immune defence, skin health, hormonal balance, and the maintenance of normal hair and nails.
Key Highlights
- Chelated form: zinc bound to glycine for enhanced absorption
- Gentler on the stomach than zinc sulfate or oxide
- Supports immune function, skin, hair, nails, and fertility (EFSA approved)
- Glycine component adds calming amino acid benefit
- See our main Zinc page for detailed research and EFSA claims
Biochemistry Timeline
Zinc glycinate is highly bioavailable and gentle on digestion. Benefits begin within 2-4 weeks. See our main Zinc page for detailed information.
Summary
Zinc Glycinate offers enhanced absorption and digestive comfort through chelation with glycine. See our main Zinc page for comprehensive research, EFSA claims, and detailed information.
FAQs
What is zinc glycinate?
Zinc glycinate is zinc bound to the amino acid glycine. This chelated form is designed for enhanced absorption and is typically very gentle on the stomach, making it suitable for people with sensitive digestion.
Is zinc glycinate better absorbed than other forms?
Chelated zinc forms like glycinate generally show good bioavailability. The glycine molecule helps protect zinc during digestion, potentially allowing more to be absorbed compared to non-chelated forms.
How much zinc should I take daily?
The recommended daily intake for adults in Europe is 7 to 11 mg, depending on dietary phytate intake. The European tolerable upper intake level is 25 mg per day for adults.
Research
Queille-Roussel et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2026). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.70641
Han et al — Ecotoxicol Environ Saf (2026). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.119607
Amanzholkyzy A et al. – Georgian medical news (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41687657/
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Agare GI et al. – Clinical nutrition ESPEN (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40015604/
Stanescu C et al. – Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40942093/
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Jha N et al. – Nutrients (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40292568/
Jesenak et al — Adv Ther (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12325-025-03393-3
Muniz et al — PLoS One (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316807
GamalEl Din et al — Arch Ital Urol Androl (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.4081/aiua.2025.13554
Shao et al — Nutr Rev (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuaf015
Wu et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16740
Świątkiewicz et al — Amino Acids (2025). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-025-03489-8
PMC11626374 — Zinc and androgenic pathways (2024). [Mechanistic review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11626374/
Ayhan et al. — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Cross-sectional]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11626366/
Nault D et al. - Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2024). [Cochrane Review Update]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38719213/
Hsu TJ et al. – Nutrients (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39683510/
Kapper C et al. – Nutrients (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39683462/
Cui Y et al. – COPD (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38591165/
Langer G et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38345088/
Dal Belo et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16052
An et al — Nutrients (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172970
Haas et al — Nutrients (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16101400
Barbonetti et al — Andrology (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/andr.13498
Zarrin et al — Int Wound J (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/iwj.70139
Mousavi et al — BMC Oral Health (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-024-04072-5
Sommana et al — J Multidiscip Healthc (2024). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S469276
Chao et al. — Nutrients (2023). [Meta-analysis (15 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37299574/
Andersen CT et al. – BMJ global health (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36849195/
Shields A et al. – JAMA dermatology (2023). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37878272/
Zafar MI et al. – Drugs (2023). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36943634/
García-Rodríguez MT et al. – Advances in skin & wound care (2023). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36537775/
Maxfield L & Crane JS — StatPearls (2023). [Textbook review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29630283/
Hemilä et al — Res Synth Methods (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1601
Te et al — J Trace Elem Med Biol (2023). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2022.127124
Dadgar et al — Ir J Med Sci (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-022-02931-0
Yu et al — Clin Exp Dermatol (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ced/llad168
Wang L & Song Y - Frontiers in Nutrition (2022). [Umbrella Meta-Analysis]. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2022.798078/
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Ripani et al — Med Arch (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.5455/medarh.2022.76.66-71
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Machado-Neves et al — Chemosphere (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133020
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Kitagawa et al — Int J Cancer (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.33316
Mehl et al — J Wound Care (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.12968/jowc.2021.30.1.26
Dall'Oglio et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.14091
Jung et al — J Clin Gastroenterol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCG.0000000000001357
Micali et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.14095
Mazaheri Nia et al — J Sex Marital Ther (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2021.1957732
Dhaliwal et al. — J Drugs Dermatol (2020). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31745908/
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Calder PC et al. – Nutrients (2020). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32340216/
Yee BE et al. – Dermatologic therapy (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32860489/
Pearsey HM et al. – Reviews in endocrine & metabolic disorders (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32377863/
Song YP et al. – Nutrition in clinical practice : official publication of the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32166790/
Moore ZE et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32677037/
Suchdev et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008959.pub3
Hemilä et al — BMJ Open (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-031662
Schisterman et al — JAMA (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.18714
Kopets et al — Andrology (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/andr.12805
Kuchakulla et al — Urology (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2019.11.007
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Shafaee et al — Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2020.102000
Chaitanya et al — J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3177/jnsv.66.93
Stone et al — Wound Repair Regen (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/wrr.12778
Okamoto et al — Clin Exp Nephrol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10157-020-01911-x
Wolf et al — Oral Oncol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oraloncology.2020.104928
Piquero-Casals et al — J Drugs Dermatol (2020). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.36849/JDD.2020.10.36849/JDD.2020.5121
Eaton JC et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2019). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30779870/
Doty RL – Handbook of clinical neurology (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31604562/
Read SA et al. — Adv Nutr (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31305906/
Zouboulis et al — J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdv.15233
Lueangarun et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12951
Mandlik et al — Indian J Pediatr (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12098-019-02933-4
Banihani et al — Andrologia (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/and.13228
Modarresi et al — Urol J (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.22037/uj.v0i0.4122
Sagawa et al — Breast Cancer Res Treat (2019). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10549-019-05164-5
Carmina et al — J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2018-02548
Ogawa Y et al. — Nutrients (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29439479/
Tolino et al — G Ital Dermatol Venereol (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0392-0488.18.05710-3
Kujinga et al — Public Health Nutr (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980018001441
Arangasamy et al — Theriogenology (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2018.01.008
Kuzmenko et al — Urologiia (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30035423/
Jozsa et al — Medicine (Baltimore) (2018). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000009991
Schwartz et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12355
Tsounapi et al — Andrologia (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/and.13071
Khoobbakht et al — Anim Reprod Sci (2018). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2018.02.017
Seino et al — J Nutr Health Aging (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-017-0904-5
Maktabi et al — Biol Trace Elem Res (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-017-1085-0
Hemilä — Open Forum Infect Dis (2017). [Meta-analysis (7 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28480298/
Wessels I et al. - Nutrients (2017). [Comprehensive Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29186856/
Hemilä H - JRSM Open (2017). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28515951/
Irani M et al. – Urology journal (2017). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28853101/
Block E et al. – Natural product reports (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28471462/
Bhattacharyya et al — BMC Dermatol (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12895-017-0058-5
Owen et al — Biochem J (2017). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1042/BCJ20170648
Woodward et al — J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci (2017). [Clinical Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28903822/
Garde et al — Prev Vet Med (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2015.11.011
Finch CW – Nutrition in clinical practice : official publication of the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (2015). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25527182/
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Li et al — J Anim Sci (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2015-8910
Liu et al — J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) (2015). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.12292
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Zinc for depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. [Meta-analysis]. https://nutrition.bmj.com/content/3/1/111
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165 studies — Zinc
Queille-Roussel et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2026). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.70641
Han et al — Ecotoxicol Environ Saf (2026). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.119607
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Agare GI et al. – Clinical nutrition ESPEN (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40015604/
Stanescu C et al. – Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40942093/
Ferrara G et al. – Nefrologia (2025). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39986711/
Jha N et al. – Nutrients (2025). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40292568/
Jesenak et al — Adv Ther (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12325-025-03393-3
Muniz et al — PLoS One (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316807
GamalEl Din et al — Arch Ital Urol Androl (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.4081/aiua.2025.13554
Shao et al — Nutr Rev (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuaf015
Wu et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2025). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16740
Świątkiewicz et al — Amino Acids (2025). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-025-03489-8
PMC11626374 — Zinc and androgenic pathways (2024). [Mechanistic review]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11626374/
Ayhan et al. — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Cross-sectional]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11626366/
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Hsu TJ et al. – Nutrients (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39683510/
Kapper C et al. – Nutrients (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39683462/
Cui Y et al. – COPD (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38591165/
Langer G et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38345088/
Dal Belo et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16052
An et al — Nutrients (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172970
Haas et al — Nutrients (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16101400
Barbonetti et al — Andrology (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/andr.13498
Zarrin et al — Int Wound J (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/iwj.70139
Mousavi et al — BMC Oral Health (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-024-04072-5
Sommana et al — J Multidiscip Healthc (2024). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S469276
Chao et al. — Nutrients (2023). [Meta-analysis (15 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37299574/
Andersen CT et al. – BMJ global health (2023). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36849195/
Shields A et al. – JAMA dermatology (2023). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37878272/
Zafar MI et al. – Drugs (2023). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36943634/
García-Rodríguez MT et al. – Advances in skin & wound care (2023). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36537775/
Maxfield L & Crane JS — StatPearls (2023). [Textbook review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29630283/
Hemilä et al — Res Synth Methods (2023). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1601
Te et al — J Trace Elem Med Biol (2023). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2022.127124
Dadgar et al — Ir J Med Sci (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-022-02931-0
Yu et al — Clin Exp Dermatol (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ced/llad168
Wang L & Song Y - Frontiers in Nutrition (2022). [Umbrella Meta-Analysis]. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2022.798078/
Bomer N et al. – Journal of internal medicine (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35137472/
Tyrmi JS et al. – Human reproduction (Oxford, England) (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34791234/
Yosaee S et al. – General hospital psychiatry (2022). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32829928/
Sadeghsoltani F et al. — Biol Trace Elem Res (2022). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34081300/
Kazandjieva et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.15074
Yousefi et al — Funct Plant Biol (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1071/FP21290
Ripani et al — Med Arch (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.5455/medarh.2022.76.66-71
Jongstra et al — Am J Clin Nutr (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqab379
Machado-Neves et al — Chemosphere (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133020
Rybalov et al — Georgian Med News (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36318852/
Rossi et al — Ital J Dermatol Venerol (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.23736/S2784-8671.21.06915-7
Chang et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.14564
Welzel et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.14158
Salavatizadeh et al — Clin Nutr ESPEN (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnesp.2022.07.008
Keshteli et al — Nutrients (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14163294
Smith et al — J Nutr (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxac064
Zupo et al — Nutrients (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14194052
Hendricks AJ et al. – The Journal of dermatological treatment (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31106609/
Dalhoff A – Infection (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33367978/
Camilleri M – Current opinion in clinical nutrition and metabolic care (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34138767/
Shi C et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2021). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34308565/
Taghipour A et al. – Biological trace element research (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33405078/
Saeg F et al. – Plastic and reconstructive surgery (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34181622/
Neta FI et al. – Current research in pharmacology and drug discovery (2021). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34870148/
Vahid et al — Clin Nutr ESPEN (2021). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnesp.2021.04.009
Knudtson et al — J Assist Reprod Genet (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-021-02301-2
Davis et al — Int J Cosmet Sci (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/ics.12734
Zhang et al — Obes Surg (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11695-021-05311-2
Glass et al — Int Wound J (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/iwj.13588
Verzì et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.14097
Kitagawa et al — Int J Cancer (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.33316
Mehl et al — J Wound Care (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.12968/jowc.2021.30.1.26
Dall'Oglio et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.14091
Jung et al — J Clin Gastroenterol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCG.0000000000001357
Micali et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.14095
Mazaheri Nia et al — J Sex Marital Ther (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2021.1957732
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Suchdev et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008959.pub3
Hemilä et al — BMJ Open (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-031662
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The Benefits of Zinc Citrate
Zinc Citrate
Bioavailable Form
Zinc Citrate is a well-absorbed form of zinc bound to citric acid. It supports immune defence, skin health, hormonal balance, and hair and nail maintenance. Zinc citrate is a practical choice for general zinc supplementation, offering good bioavailability at an accessible price point.
Key Highlights
- Well-absorbed zinc form bound to citric acid
- Supports immune function, skin, hair, and nails (EFSA approved)
- Good bioavailability at an accessible price point
- See our main Zinc page for detailed research and EFSA claims
Biochemistry Timeline
Zinc citrate is well-absorbed and benefits can begin within 2-4 weeks for immune and skin health. See our main Zinc page for detailed biochemistry and timelines.
Summary
Zinc Citrate is a well-absorbed form of zinc supporting immune, skin, hair, and hormonal health. See our main Zinc page for comprehensive research, EFSA claims, and detailed information.
FAQs
How does zinc citrate compare to other zinc forms?
Zinc citrate offers good bioavailability and is generally well-tolerated. It tends to cause less digestive discomfort than zinc sulphate, making it a popular choice for supplementation.
Can zinc interfere with copper absorption?
Yes, high doses of zinc taken over extended periods can reduce copper absorption. If you take zinc supplements long-term, ensuring adequate copper intake is important.
When is the best time to take zinc?
Zinc is best taken with food to reduce the chance of stomach discomfort. Avoid taking it at the same time as high-fibre meals or calcium supplements, as these can reduce absorption.
Research
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Seino et al — J Nutr Health Aging (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-017-0904-5
Maktabi et al — Biol Trace Elem Res (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-017-1085-0
Hemilä — Open Forum Infect Dis (2017). [Meta-analysis (7 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28480298/
Wessels I et al. - Nutrients (2017). [Comprehensive Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29186856/
Hemilä H - JRSM Open (2017). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28515951/
Irani M et al. – Urology journal (2017). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28853101/
Block E et al. – Natural product reports (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28471462/
Bhattacharyya et al — BMC Dermatol (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12895-017-0058-5
Owen et al — Biochem J (2017). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1042/BCJ20170648
Woodward et al — J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci (2017). [Clinical Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28903822/
Garde et al — Prev Vet Med (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2015.11.011
Finch CW – Nutrition in clinical practice : official publication of the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (2015). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25527182/
Michielan A et al. – Mediators of inflammation (2015). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26582965/
Wieringa FT et al. — PLoS One (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25880209/
Li et al — J Anim Sci (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2015-8910
Liu et al — J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) (2015). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.12292
Gupta M et al. — Dermatol Res Pract (2014). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25120566/
Singh M & Das RR - Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2013). [Cochrane Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23775705/
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Schagen SK et al. - Dermato-Endocrinology (2012). [Systematic Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23467449/
EFSA Health Claims Register (2012). [Regulatory]. General
Rao G & Rowland K — J Fam Pract (2011). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21540986/
Hemila H — Open Respir Med J (2011). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21769305/
Saper RB & Rash R — Am Fam Physician (2009). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19678340/
Haase H & Rink L — Annu Rev Nutr (2009). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19575597/
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Prasad — Mol Med (2008). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18587293/
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Hughes S et al. – Journal of the American College of Nutrition (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16943449/
Maret W & Sandstead HH — J Trace Elem Med Biol (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17084463/
Mathus-Vliegen EM – The journals of gerontology. Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences (2004). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15071079/
Morselli B et al. – Therapeutische Umschau. Revue therapeutique (2000). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10756695/
Zima T et al. – Blood purification (1999). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10494021/
Ackerman BH et al. – Pharmacotherapy (1997). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9165552/
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Zinc for depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. [Meta-analysis]. https://nutrition.bmj.com/content/3/1/111
Zinc status and hair loss: clinical associations. [Cohort]. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12011-010-8952-2
Zinc and COVID-19: potential role in immune modulation. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7287917/
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Zinc in wound healing: clinical and experimental review. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4120804/
Zinc deficiency: clinical and biochemical features. [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9701160/
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165 studies — Zinc Citrate
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Jesenak et al — Adv Ther (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12325-025-03393-3
Muniz et al — PLoS One (2025). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316807
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Świątkiewicz et al — Amino Acids (2025). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-025-03489-8
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Ayhan et al. — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Cross-sectional]. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11626366/
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Kapper C et al. – Nutrients (2024). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39683462/
Cui Y et al. – COPD (2024). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38591165/
Langer G et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2024). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38345088/
Dal Belo et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.16052
An et al — Nutrients (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172970
Haas et al — Nutrients (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16101400
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Zarrin et al — Int Wound J (2024). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/iwj.70139
Mousavi et al — BMC Oral Health (2024). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-024-04072-5
Sommana et al — J Multidiscip Healthc (2024). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S469276
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Te et al — J Trace Elem Med Biol (2023). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2022.127124
Dadgar et al — Ir J Med Sci (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-022-02931-0
Yu et al — Clin Exp Dermatol (2023). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ced/llad168
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Yousefi et al — Funct Plant Biol (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1071/FP21290
Ripani et al — Med Arch (2022). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.5455/medarh.2022.76.66-71
Jongstra et al — Am J Clin Nutr (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqab379
Machado-Neves et al — Chemosphere (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133020
Rybalov et al — Georgian Med News (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36318852/
Rossi et al — Ital J Dermatol Venerol (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.23736/S2784-8671.21.06915-7
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Keshteli et al — Nutrients (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14163294
Smith et al — J Nutr (2022). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxac064
Zupo et al — Nutrients (2022). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14194052
Hendricks AJ et al. – The Journal of dermatological treatment (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31106609/
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Saeg F et al. – Plastic and reconstructive surgery (2021). [Systematic review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34181622/
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Vahid et al — Clin Nutr ESPEN (2021). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnesp.2021.04.009
Knudtson et al — J Assist Reprod Genet (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-021-02301-2
Davis et al — Int J Cosmet Sci (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/ics.12734
Zhang et al — Obes Surg (2021). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11695-021-05311-2
Glass et al — Int Wound J (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/iwj.13588
Verzì et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.14097
Kitagawa et al — Int J Cancer (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.33316
Mehl et al — J Wound Care (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.12968/jowc.2021.30.1.26
Dall'Oglio et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.14091
Jung et al — J Clin Gastroenterol (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCG.0000000000001357
Micali et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2021). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.14095
Mazaheri Nia et al — J Sex Marital Ther (2021). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2021.1957732
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Pearsey HM et al. – Reviews in endocrine & metabolic disorders (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32377863/
Song YP et al. – Nutrition in clinical practice : official publication of the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (2020). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32166790/
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Suchdev et al — Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008959.pub3
Hemilä et al — BMJ Open (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-031662
Schisterman et al — JAMA (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.18714
Kopets et al — Andrology (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/andr.12805
Kuchakulla et al — Urology (2020). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2019.11.007
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Shafaee et al — Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther (2020). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2020.102000
Chaitanya et al — J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.3177/jnsv.66.93
Stone et al — Wound Repair Regen (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/wrr.12778
Okamoto et al — Clin Exp Nephrol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10157-020-01911-x
Wolf et al — Oral Oncol (2020). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oraloncology.2020.104928
Piquero-Casals et al — J Drugs Dermatol (2020). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.36849/JDD.2020.10.36849/JDD.2020.5121
Eaton JC et al. – The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2019). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30779870/
Doty RL – Handbook of clinical neurology (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31604562/
Read SA et al. — Adv Nutr (2019). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31305906/
Zouboulis et al — J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdv.15233
Lueangarun et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12951
Mandlik et al — Indian J Pediatr (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12098-019-02933-4
Banihani et al — Andrologia (2019). [Systematic Review]. https://doi.org/10.1111/and.13228
Modarresi et al — Urol J (2019). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.22037/uj.v0i0.4122
Sagawa et al — Breast Cancer Res Treat (2019). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10549-019-05164-5
Carmina et al — J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2019). [Meta-Analysis]. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2018-02548
Ogawa Y et al. — Nutrients (2018). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29439479/
Tolino et al — G Ital Dermatol Venereol (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0392-0488.18.05710-3
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Arangasamy et al — Theriogenology (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2018.01.008
Kuzmenko et al — Urologiia (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30035423/
Jozsa et al — Medicine (Baltimore) (2018). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000009991
Schwartz et al — J Cosmet Dermatol (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12355
Tsounapi et al — Andrologia (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/and.13071
Khoobbakht et al — Anim Reprod Sci (2018). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2018.02.017
Seino et al — J Nutr Health Aging (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-017-0904-5
Maktabi et al — Biol Trace Elem Res (2018). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-017-1085-0
Hemilä — Open Forum Infect Dis (2017). [Meta-analysis (7 RCTs)]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28480298/
Wessels I et al. - Nutrients (2017). [Comprehensive Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29186856/
Hemilä H - JRSM Open (2017). [Meta-Analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28515951/
Irani M et al. – Urology journal (2017). [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28853101/
Block E et al. – Natural product reports (2017). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28471462/
Bhattacharyya et al — BMC Dermatol (2017). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12895-017-0058-5
Owen et al — Biochem J (2017). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1042/BCJ20170648
Woodward et al — J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci (2017). [Clinical Trial]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28903822/
Garde et al — Prev Vet Med (2016). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2015.11.011
Finch CW – Nutrition in clinical practice : official publication of the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (2015). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25527182/
Michielan A et al. – Mediators of inflammation (2015). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26582965/
Wieringa FT et al. — PLoS One (2015). [RCT]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25880209/
Li et al — J Anim Sci (2015). [Randomized Controlled Trial]. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2015-8910
Liu et al — J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) (2015). [Clinical Trial]. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.12292
Gupta M et al. — Dermatol Res Pract (2014). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25120566/
Singh M & Das RR - Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2013). [Cochrane Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23775705/
Prasad AS — Adv Nutr (2013). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23493540/
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EFSA Health Claims Register (2012). [Regulatory]. General
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Hemila H — Open Respir Med J (2011). [SR + meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21769305/
Saper RB & Rash R — Am Fam Physician (2009). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19678340/
Haase H & Rink L — Annu Rev Nutr (2009). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19575597/
Brown KH et al. — Food Nutr Bull (2009). [Expert review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19472167/
Prasad — Mol Med (2008). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18587293/
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Solfrizzi V et al. – Journal of Alzheimer's disease : JAD (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17119295/
Hughes S et al. – Journal of the American College of Nutrition (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16943449/
Maret W & Sandstead HH — J Trace Elem Med Biol (2006). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17084463/
Mathus-Vliegen EM – The journals of gerontology. Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences (2004). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15071079/
Morselli B et al. – Therapeutische Umschau. Revue therapeutique (2000). [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10756695/
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Zinc deficiency and immunity — established (Established). [Biochemical mechanism]. General
Zinc and skin health: mechanisms and clinical evidence. [Review]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32342851/
Zinc supplementation and fertility outcomes. [Meta-analysis]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34728441/
Zinc for depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. [Meta-analysis]. https://nutrition.bmj.com/content/3/1/111
Zinc status and hair loss: clinical associations. [Cohort]. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12011-010-8952-2
Zinc and COVID-19: potential role in immune modulation. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7287917/
Zinc supplementation for common cold: meta-analysis. [Meta-analysis]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4135093/
Zinc in wound healing: clinical and experimental review. [Review]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4120804/
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The Benefits of Zinc
Zinc
Bioavailable Form
Zinc is an essential trace mineral involved in over 300 enzymatic reactions in the body. It is crucial for immune defence, skin health, hormonal balance, and wound healing. Despite its importance, zinc deficiency is common worldwide, particularly among those following plant-based diets, as phytates in grains and legumes can inhibit zinc absorption.
Key Highlights
- Contributes to normal function of the immune system (EFSA approved)
- Supports the maintenance of normal skin (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to the maintenance of normal hair and nails (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal fertility and reproduction (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to normal DNA synthesis (EFSA approved)
- Supports normal acid-base metabolism (EFSA approved)
- Contributes to the protection of cells from oxidative stress (EFSA approved)
Biochemistry Timeline
Zinc supplementation can begin to show immune and skin benefits within 2 to 4 weeks. For hair health, improvements may take 3 to 6 months as hair growth cycles are slow. Zinc is best absorbed when taken with food and away from iron or calcium supplements, which can compete for absorption.
The body does not store zinc efficiently, so consistent daily intake is important for maintaining adequate levels. If you are supplementing zinc long-term, consider pairing it with a small amount of copper, as high zinc intake over time can reduce copper absorption.
Fertility and Reproductive Health
EFSA recognises that zinc contributes to normal fertility and reproduction. Zinc is involved in hormone regulation, cell division, and DNA synthesis, all of which are fundamental to reproductive health.
For women, zinc supports hormonal balance and may help manage symptoms related to hormonal fluctuations throughout the menstrual cycle. A 2025 systematic review in Nutrition Reviews confirmed that zinc supplementation (at doses of 30 mg/day or more) showed consistent benefits for PMS-related psychological symptoms.
Adequate zinc status before and during pregnancy supports healthy cell division and fetal development, making it an important nutrient in the preconception and prenatal period.
Cognitive Function and Mood
Zinc is found in high concentrations in the brain, particularly in the hippocampus, which is involved in learning and memory. It plays a role in neurotransmitter function and neuronal signalling, supporting normal cognitive function.
Research suggests that zinc status may influence mood and psychological well-being. While the relationship is complex and still being studied, ensuring adequate zinc intake supports the brain's ability to function optimally. EFSA recognises that zinc contributes to normal cognitive function.
Summary
Zinc is an essential trace mineral involved in over 300 enzymatic reactions, supporting immune defence, skin health, hormonal balance, hair growth, fertility, and cognitive function. Deficiency is common worldwide, particularly among plant-based eaters.
Supplementation benefits can be seen within 2 to 4 weeks for immune and skin health, with hair improvements taking 3 to 6 months. Zinc is best taken with food, and long-term supplementation should be balanced with copper intake.
FAQs
How much zinc do I need daily?
The recommended intake for adult women is 7-8 mg per day, with higher needs during pregnancy and breastfeeding. The European upper limit for supplemental zinc is 25 mg per day. Most supplements provide 15-25 mg per day.
Can zinc help with acne?
Yes, research supports zinc's role in managing hormonal acne. It inhibits the enzyme that converts testosterone to DHT (a key acne driver) and has anti-inflammatory properties. Results typically take 8 to 12 weeks of consistent supplementation.
Should I take zinc with food?
Yes, taking zinc with food can improve absorption and reduce the risk of stomach discomfort. However, avoid taking it alongside high-phytate foods (like bran cereals) or calcium/iron supplements, which can compete for absorption.
Can I take zinc while pregnant?
Yes, zinc is important during pregnancy for cell division and fetal development. The recommended intake increases during pregnancy. Follow your healthcare provider's guidance on dosage.
What are signs of zinc deficiency?
Common signs include frequent infections, slow wound healing, hair thinning, brittle nails, loss of taste or smell, skin issues, and poor appetite. A blood test can help assess your zinc status, though it is worth noting that serum zinc does not always reflect tissue levels accurately.
Research
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165 studies — Zinc
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Our Ingredients
From essential vitamins and minerals to carefully selected botanicals and amino acids. Every ingredient backed by research, chosen with intention.
